Abstract
The position of women and attitudes relating to gender have been subjects of considerable scholarly interest in recent decades, reflecting broader social transformations and the rethinking of gender roles across all spheres of human activity. This comprehensive academic inquiry examines the diverse attitudes relating to gender across seven major religious traditions: Vedic period Hinduism, Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism, Islam, Shinto, Christianity, and Buddhism. Through systematic analysis of primary religious texts, historical developments, and contemporary scholarship, this article demonstrates that religious attitudes toward gender are not monolithic but have evolved significantly over time, often reflecting broader social, cultural, and political contexts. The investigation reveals that while some traditions have maintained patriarchal structures that subordinate women, others have provided more egalitarian frameworks, and most traditions contain both liberating and restrictive elements regarding gender. The study pays particular attention to Buddhism, arguing that the Buddha's teachings provide the most egalitarian framework among major religious traditions, emphasizing spiritual potential regardless of gender and establishing a monastic order for women during his lifetime. The article examines the Vedic period's relatively positive view of women, the subsequent Brahmanical period's systematic subordination of women through legal codes such as the Laws of Manu, the varying attitudes in Jainism between its two main sects, the Quranic teachings on gender relations in Islam, the relatively egalitarian practices in Shinto, the ongoing debates about women's ordination in Christianity, and the Buddha's revolutionary teachings on women's spiritual potential. The article concludes that while all religious traditions contain elements that have been used to justify gender discrimination, Buddhism stands out as the tradition that most consistently affirms the spiritual equality of all beings regardless of gender, establishing a framework that recognizes women's full potential for enlightenment.
1. Introduction
The position of women has been a subject of considerable interest in recent decades. In all societies, particularly in the West, there has been a rethinking of the position accorded to women in all spheres of activity. This has resulted in a significant change in the role played by women in social, economic, and political life. This reappraisal has also touched the question of the position accorded to women in the main religious traditions of the world. In Christian countries, the issue of the ordination of women has become a controversial topic, and some Churches are facing the prospect of dissension, and even schism, on this question. The position of women in Islam has been the subject of considerable discussion and controversy.
The study of gender in religious contexts is essential for understanding not only historical patterns of discrimination but also contemporary struggles for equality and justice. Religious traditions have played a significant role in shaping attitudes toward gender, often providing the ideological framework for social norms and practices. As one scholar observes, "religions are not simply repositories of tradition but are active agents in the construction of gender identities and relations." Understanding the diverse attitudes toward gender in different religious traditions is therefore crucial for comprehending both historical patterns of discrimination and contemporary possibilities for transformation.
This article undertakes a comprehensive examination of the different attitudes relating to gender across seven major religious traditions: Vedic period Hinduism, Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism, Islam, Shinto, Christianity, and Buddhism. The investigation proceeds through several interconnected dimensions of analysis. It begins with a definition of the term "gender" and its significance in religious studies. It then examines each religious tradition in turn, analyzing its attitudes toward gender as expressed in sacred texts, historical developments, and contemporary practices. The analysis pays particular attention to the status of women, their roles in religious practice, and the extent to which they are accorded equality with men.
The article devotes particular attention to Buddhism, arguing that the Buddhist attitude relating to gender is superior to other religious traditions. This argument is based on the Buddha's explicit teachings on women's spiritual potential, his establishment of a monastic order for women, and the recognition of women's capacity for enlightenment. The investigation examines key texts such as the Dhitu Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Kundala Kesi Jataka, and the Sattabhariya Sutta, which demonstrate the Buddha's progressive attitude toward women.
Through this systematic examination, the article demonstrates that attitudes toward gender in religious traditions are not static but have evolved over time, often reflecting broader social, cultural, and political contexts. The article concludes that while all religious traditions contain both liberating and restrictive elements regarding gender, Buddhism provides the most consistent and comprehensive affirmation of women's spiritual equality and potential for enlightenment.
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## 2. Defining Gender: Conceptual and Analytical Frameworks
### 2.1 The Meaning of Gender
The term "gender" can be defined as the state of being male or female, typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones. As the Oxford Dictionary defines it, gender refers to "the state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones)" and "the members of one or other sex." According to general knowledge, gender can be divided into two main parts: male and female, though contemporary scholarship recognizes a more complex spectrum of gender identities.
The distinction between sex and gender is crucial for understanding attitudes toward gender in religious traditions. Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, while gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. As one scholar notes, "gender is not simply a biological given but is actively constructed through social practices, cultural norms, and religious teachings."
This distinction is particularly important in the study of religion because religious traditions often naturalize gender differences, presenting them as divinely ordained or cosmologically grounded. By examining how religious traditions construct and reinforce gender differences, scholars can better understand the mechanisms of discrimination and the possibilities for transformation.
2.2 Gender as a Social Construction
Understanding gender as a social construction is essential for analyzing religious attitudes toward gender. As one scholar observes, "gender is not something we are born with but something we learn and perform through social interaction." Religious traditions play a significant role in this learning process, providing narratives, symbols, rituals, and ethical teachings that shape gender identities and relations.
The social construction of gender is evident in the varying attitudes toward women across different religious traditions and historical periods. What is considered appropriate for women in one tradition may be considered inappropriate in another, suggesting that gender norms are not fixed but are shaped by specific cultural and historical contexts.
This recognition has important implications for understanding religious traditions. While some traditions may appear to have uniformly negative attitudes toward women, a closer examination often reveals more complex and contradictory patterns. Most religious traditions contain both liberating and restrictive elements regarding gender, and the relative emphasis on these elements has shifted over time in response to changing social conditions.
2.3 The Significance of Gender in Religious Studies
The study of gender in religious contexts is essential for several reasons. First, religious traditions have historically played a central role in shaping gender norms and practices. As one scholar notes, "religions are among the most powerful social institutions for constructing and maintaining gender hierarchies." Understanding religious attitudes toward gender is therefore crucial for comprehending historical patterns of gender discrimination.
Second, religious traditions are often invoked to justify contemporary gender inequalities. Arguments about the "natural" or "divinely ordained" roles of men and women frequently draw on religious texts and traditions. Examining these claims critically is essential for challenging discrimination and promoting equality.
Third, religious traditions also contain resources for challenging gender inequality. Many traditions have liberating elements that have been used to support women's struggles for equality and justice. Feminist theologians and scholars have recovered these elements, demonstrating the potential for religious traditions to support rather than undermine gender equality.
3. Attitudes Toward Gender in Vedic Period Hinduism
3.1 The Vedic Period: A Golden Age for Women
The Vedic period, dating from approximately 1500 to 500 BCE, represents a relatively positive era for women in Indian religious history. During this period, people worshiped Mother Goddesses and considered womanhood as a sign of prosperity. They understood that the survival of the human generation was accomplished based on womanhood, and therefore they respected women accordingly.
In Vedic texts, we can find hymns composed by women, indicating that women were educated and participated in religious life. The Rig Veda, one of the oldest sacred texts in the world, contains hymns attributed to female seers such as Lopamudra, Apala, Ghosha, and Vishwavara. These hymns demonstrate that women were considered capable of spiritual insight and religious authority.
During the Vedic period, women had the right to learn and perform religious activities. Men allowed women to engage in these kinds of activities, suggesting a relatively egalitarian attitude toward gender. As one scholar observes, "the Vedic period was characterized by a high degree of gender equality, with women participating freely in religious, social, and intellectual life."
3.2 Women's Participation in Vedic Religious Life
Women's participation in Vedic religious life was extensive and varied. They participated in sacrifices, chanted hymns, and performed rituals alongside men. The Upanishads, which represent the philosophical culmination of the Vedic tradition, contain references to women philosophers such as Gargi and Maitreyi, who engaged in profound philosophical debates with male sages.
The Vedic period also recognized the importance of women in the household and family. The wife was considered the mistress of the household (grhini) and played a central role in domestic rituals. The husband and wife were considered equal partners in the performance of religious duties, and the completion of many rituals required the participation of both.
This positive attitude toward women in the Vedic period is represented in the following diagram, which indicates the importance of women in Vedic society:
3.3 The Transition to Brahmanical Views
The opposite views of the Vedic period can be seen in the Laws of Manu and the subsequent Brahmanical period. As one scholar notes, "the transition from the Vedic to the Brahmanical period marked a significant deterioration in the status of women, as patriarchal structures became increasingly entrenched and women were systematically subordinated to male authority."
This transition was not sudden but gradual, reflecting broader social and political changes in Indian society. As the Vedic culture evolved into the more hierarchical Brahmanical system, women's status declined significantly. The reasons for this decline are complex and disputed, but they likely include the consolidation of patriarchal authority, the rise of priestly power, and the increasing emphasis on purity and pollution.
The contrast between the Vedic and Brahmanical periods demonstrates that religious attitudes toward gender are not fixed but can change significantly over time. This has important implications for understanding contemporary religious traditions, which often contain elements from different historical periods that may be in tension with each other.
4. Attitudes Toward Gender in Brahmanical Hinduism
4.1 The Laws of Manu and the Subordination of Women
The Brahmanical period, particularly as codified in the Laws of Manu (Manusmriti), represents a significant deterioration in the status of women. The Brahmin texts described woman as having a sinful character and placed women in the lowest place in society. The honorable, divine status of women that existed in the Vedic period was gradually destroyed during the Brahmanical period.
The Laws of Manu contains numerous passages that subordinate women and restrict their rights. For example, Manu states that "a woman should never be independent" and that she should be "under the control of her father in childhood, her husband in youth, and her son in old age." This doctrine of perpetual dependence (nitya paratantrya) became a cornerstone of Brahmanical patriarchy and continued to influence Indian society for centuries.
The Brahmin defined womanhood in increasingly negative terms, as expressed in the following stanza:
"Darsanam citta vaikalyam----sparse dhana nasanam
sayanam maranam kuryat-----stri pratyaksa raksasi"
"The meaning of this stanza is: looking at the woman's form makes one crazy; touching the woman's body is the destruction of wealth; if you sleep with a woman, death is sure; therefore, woman is similar to the devil."
4.2 Women as Unintelligent and Inferior
The Brahmin taught that women were an unintelligent group of people. They did not care about the ideas of women. They taught that women could not develop their intelligence. The Brahmin wanted to protect their androcentric society through these teachings.
The following stanza from the Pratyasataka reflects this view:
"Atma Buddhir sukam seti--Guru bhuddhir visesta
Stri bhiddhi vinasaya--bahu buddhir maranam bavet"
"Thinking of the self brings happiness; thinking of the teacher brings excellence; thinking of women brings destruction; thinking of many things brings death."
In this period, woman was considered a slave who was used for the satisfaction of men, especially for sexual satisfaction. The Brahmin gave women only that kind of value, as reflected in the following stanza:
"Gagane ravi ratnantu --Gruhe ratnani balakah
Shayane stri ratnam vai--sabha ratnani panditah"
"The jewel in the sky is the sun; the jewel in the house is the child; the jewel in the bed is the woman; the jewel in the assembly is the learned one."
4.3 Women as Objects of Pleasure
The Brahmanical period increasingly treated women as objects of male pleasure rather than as persons with their own dignity and autonomy. The following stanza illustrates this attitude:
"Sughandan vanita vastram --Gitam tambula bhojanam
Shayam mandiram caia --Ashta bhoga prakirtita"
"Perfume, woman, clothing, song, betel leaf, food, bed, and house - these are considered the eight enjoyments."
These stanzas indicate that the only importance of women was reduced to sexuality and pleasure. This objectification of women represents a significant departure from the more positive attitudes of the Vedic period and has had lasting effects on Indian society and culture.
The Brahmanical view of women represents a systematic subordination of women to male authority. This subordination was justified through religious texts, which claimed divine sanction for patriarchal structures. As one scholar observes, "the Laws of Manu codified a patriarchal ideology that would shape Indian society for millennia, establishing women as perpetually dependent on male authority and denying them autonomy and full participation in religious life."
5. Attitudes Toward Gender in Jainism
5.1 The Basic Framework of Jain Attitudes
Jainism presents a complex and somewhat contradictory picture regarding attitudes toward gender. On one hand, women are treated within the same code of ethics as that prescribed for men. Jainism emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya), and non-attachment (aparigraha) for both men and women. This suggests a fundamental equality in ethical requirements and spiritual potential.
However, the status of women in Jainism differs between the two main sects, Digambara and Svetambara. The Digambara sect has traditionally held more restrictive views regarding women, while the Svetambara sect has been more open to women's participation in religious life.
The central issue in Jain attitudes toward gender is the question of whether women can attain liberation (moksha). All Jains agree that women can achieve liberation, but the Digambara sect maintains that women must first be reborn as men to achieve final liberation. This view is based on the belief that women's bodies are inherently inferior and that they lack the capacity for the complete renunciation required for liberation.
5.2 The Digambara and Svetambara Views
The Digambara sect prohibits women from appearing naked, which is a requirement for the highest level of monastic practice. According to Digambara tradition, complete nudity is necessary for the full practice of non-attachment, and women cannot achieve this because it would be socially inappropriate and because their bodies are considered inherently impure. As a result, women cannot achieve the highest level of monastic practice and must be reborn as men to attain liberation.
The Svetambara sect, by contrast, allows women to become nuns and recognizes their capacity for liberation. Svetambara nuns follow a less strict form of monastic practice than Digambara monks, but they are still considered capable of achieving liberation. This difference reflects the more moderate approach of the Svetambara sect to questions of ascetic practice and gender.
Some Jains consider women to be inherently inferior, reflecting broader patriarchal attitudes in Indian society. However, Jainism also contains elements that affirm women's spiritual equality, particularly in the Svetambara tradition. The following diagram indicates the clear views on the attitude relating to gender in Jainism:
5.3 Women's Participation in Jain Religious Life
Despite the restrictions imposed by some Jain traditions, women have played important roles in Jain religious life throughout history. Jain nuns have been active in teaching, scholarship, and the preservation of Jain texts. The Jain tradition has produced numerous female saints and teachers, known as sadhvis, who are revered for their spiritual accomplishments.
Jain women have also been active as lay practitioners, supporting the monastic community through donations and service. The Jain emphasis on non-violence and ethical living has been particularly appealing to women, who have often found in Jainism a spiritual framework that emphasizes personal responsibility and moral development.
The Jain attitude toward gender is complex and contradictory, reflecting broader tensions in Indian religious culture. While Jainism contains elements that affirm women's spiritual potential, it also maintains patriarchal structures that limit women's full participation in religious life. As one scholar observes, "Jainism presents a paradox: it affirms the spiritual equality of all beings while maintaining gender hierarchies that restrict women's access to the highest levels of religious practice."
6. Attitudes Toward Gender in Islam
6.1 The Quranic Framework of Gender Relations
The attitude relating to gender in Islam is primarily derived from the Quran, which is considered the literal word of God, and the Hadith, which are the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad. The Quran presents a complex picture of gender relations, containing verses that affirm the spiritual equality of men and women while also establishing gender-specific roles and responsibilities.
One of the most significant verses regarding gender in Islam is found in Surah An-Nisa (4:32), which states:
"And in no wise covet those things in which Allah hath bestowed His gifts more freely on some of you than on others: to men is allotted what they earn, and to women what they earn: but ask Allah of His bounty: for Allah hath full knowledge of all things."
This verse affirms the spiritual equality of men and women, suggesting that both are equally responsible for their actions and equally deserving of divine reward. The Quran also states that men and women are created from a single soul (4:1), suggesting a fundamental equality in their creation.
However, the Quran also contains verses that establish gender-specific roles and responsibilities. The most controversial of these is Surah An-Nisa (4:34), which states:
"Husbands are the protectors and maintainers of their wives, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part you fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of annoyance); for Allah is Most High, Great (above you all)."
### 6.2 Women's Participation in Islamic Religious Life
Women's participation in Islamic religious life has been shaped by both Quranic teachings and subsequent legal and cultural developments. In the early period of Islam, women participated actively in religious and social life, attending prayers at the mosque, engaging in scholarship, and participating in political affairs. The Prophet Muhammad's wives, particularly Aisha, were important sources of religious knowledge and played significant roles in the early Islamic community.
However, over time, women's participation in religious life became more restricted. Separate prayer places for women in the mosque became common, and women's attendance at congregational prayers was discouraged. Women were also increasingly deprived of the right to education, despite the Prophet's teachings that seeking knowledge is obligatory for all Muslims.
The restrictions on women's participation in Islamic religious life have been justified on various grounds, including claims that women's presence in the mosque would distract men from prayer, that women's primary responsibility is to their families, and that women are intellectually and spiritually inferior to men. These justifications reflect broader patriarchal attitudes that have been read into Islamic texts and traditions.
6.3 Contemporary Debates on Gender in Islam
Contemporary debates on gender in Islam are highly contested. Some Muslims argue for a traditional interpretation of Islamic texts that maintains patriarchal structures and restricts women's roles. Others argue for a more egalitarian interpretation that affirms women's full participation in religious, social, and political life.
Feminist scholars of Islam have argued that the Quran's teachings on gender must be understood in their historical context and that many of the restrictions on women were culturally specific responses to particular situations rather than universally applicable divine commands. They have also pointed to Quranic verses that affirm women's equality and dignity, arguing that these verses should be given priority over later legal and cultural developments.
The position of women in Islam has been the subject of considerable discussion and controversy, both within and outside the Islamic world. As one scholar observes, "Islam presents a complex picture of gender relations, containing both liberating and restrictive elements. The challenge for contemporary Muslims is to recover the liberating elements while acknowledging and challenging the restrictive ones."
7. Attitudes Toward Gender in Christianity
7.1 The New Testament Foundation
Christianity's attitudes toward gender are primarily derived from the New Testament, which contains both egalitarian and patriarchal elements. The teachings of Jesus emphasized the spiritual equality of all persons, regardless of gender. Jesus associated with women in ways that challenged the patriarchal norms of his time, speaking with the Samaritan woman at the well (John 4), allowing a woman to anoint him (Mark 14), and appearing first to women after his resurrection (Matthew 28).
The Apostle Paul also affirmed the spiritual equality of men and women in several passages. In Galatians 3:28, Paul states that "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus." This verse suggests that in Christ, the distinctions that divide humanity, including gender, are transcended.
However, Paul also wrote passages that have been used to restrict women's roles in the church. In 1 Corinthians 14:34-35, he states that "women should be silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as the law also says. If there is anything they desire to know, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church." Similarly, in 1 Timothy 2:11-15, Paul states that "I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she is to keep silent."
7.2 Women's Participation in Christian Religious Life
Women's participation in Christian religious life has been shaped by varying interpretations of these biblical passages. In the early Christian church, women served in various roles, including as deaconesses and perhaps as leaders of house churches. However, as the church became more institutionalized, women's roles became increasingly restricted.
In the Roman Catholic tradition, women are allowed to become nuns but are not permitted to be ordained as priests or bishops. This restriction is based on the belief that Christ chose only male apostles and that the church has maintained this practice continuously. However, Catholic women have played important roles in religious life as nuns, mystics, theologians, and lay leaders.
In the Protestant tradition, women's roles have varied considerably. Some Protestant denominations allow women to be ordained as ministers, while others restrict them to subordinate roles. The issue of the ordination of women has become a controversial topic in many Christian denominations, and some Churches are facing the prospect of dissension, and even schism, on this question.
7.3 The Ordination Debate
The debate over women's ordination is one of the most significant issues facing Christianity today. Proponents of women's ordination argue that the biblical passages that restrict women's roles are culturally specific and that the fundamental message of the gospel affirms women's equality. They point to the women who served as leaders in the early church and the prophetic witness of women throughout Christian history.
Opponents of women's ordination argue that the Bible establishes a clear hierarchy in which men are given authority over women, and that this hierarchy should be maintained in the church. They point to passages such as 1 Corinthians 14 and 1 Timothy 2 as establishing a universal principle that restricts women's leadership roles.
The debate over women's ordination has had significant consequences for Christian communities. Some denominations have split over this issue, with conservative groups forming separate denominations that maintain traditional restrictions on women's roles. Other denominations have accommodated women's ordination while maintaining other patriarchal structures.
According to Roman Catholicism, women are allowed to become nuns. However, Christ had many disciples during his lifetime, including many women, but when it came time to choose his twelve apostles, he chose only men. This pattern has been used to justify the exclusion of women from ordained leadership in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions.
8. Attitudes Toward Gender in Shinto
8.1 The Basic Framework of Shinto Attitudes
Shinto, the indigenous religious tradition of Japan, presents a relatively egalitarian picture regarding gender. According to Shinto, women generally have the same rights as men do. This reflects the broader Japanese cultural context, which has historically given women a more prominent role than in many other Asian societies.
Shintoism allows women priestesses to lead in prayer and ritual in the Shinto shrines. This stands in contrast to many other religious traditions that restrict women's religious leadership roles. In fact, the most revered Shinto goddess is Amaterasu, the sun goddess, who is considered the ancestor of the Japanese imperial family.
Women generally hold the same positions and roles as men do in this religion. This is not to say that Shinto is entirely egalitarian, but it does provide women with opportunities for religious leadership and participation that are not available in many other traditions.
8.2 Amaterasu and Female Deities
The centrality of Amaterasu in Shinto cosmology is significant for understanding Shinto attitudes toward gender. As the sun goddess and the chief deity of the Shinto pantheon, Amaterasu represents the divine feminine and serves as a powerful symbol of female authority and power. This contrasts sharply with traditions in which the divine is exclusively or primarily masculine.
In addition to Amaterasu, the Shinto pantheon includes numerous other female deities (kami) who are revered for their power and authority. These female deities are not subordinate to male deities but have their own domains and authority. This suggests a more balanced view of gender in the divine realm than in many other religious traditions.
The veneration of female deities has implications for human gender relations. When the divine is understood as including both male and female, it becomes more difficult to justify the subordination of women as natural or divinely ordained. This may help explain why Shinto has traditionally provided women with more opportunities for religious participation than many other traditions.
### 8.3 Women as Priestesses
Shinto allows women to serve as priestesses (miko), a role that has been central to Shinto practice for centuries. Miko perform various functions at Shinto shrines, including rituals, purification ceremonies, and sacred dances (kagura). They are not subordinate to male priests but serve alongside them as religious leaders.
In some periods of Japanese history, miko played even more prominent roles, serving as mediums and healers. They were believed to have special spiritual abilities that enabled them to communicate with the kami. This gave them significant religious authority and social status.
While Shinto provides women with more religious opportunities than many traditions, it is not entirely egalitarian. Some Shinto shrines have restricted women's participation in certain rituals, particularly those associated with purity. However, compared to many other religious traditions, Shinto has been relatively open to women's participation and leadership.
9. Attitudes Toward Gender in Buddhism
9.1 The Buddha's Revolutionary Teachings on Women
The Buddhist attitude toward gender is distinctive and represents a significant departure from the patriarchal norms of ancient Indian society. The Buddha was the first religious leader who gave women equal and unfettered opportunities in the field of spiritual development. Although He had pointed out on several occasions the natural tendencies and weaknesses of women, He had also given due credit to their abilities and capabilities.
The Buddha's teachings on women are exemplified in the Dhitu Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, which states:
"Itthī pi hi ekacuyā seyyā posa janādhipa
Medhāvini silavatī sassudevā patibbatā
Tassā yo jāyali poso suro note disampati
Evam subhagiyā putto rajjam pi anusāsatī"
"A woman child, O lord of Men, may prove even a better offspring than a male, for she may grow up wise and virtuous, respects husband's mother and father and be a true wife. The son that she may bear may do great deeds and rule great realms, yes such a son of noble wife become his country's noble guide."
This verse is remarkable for its affirmation of women's value and potential. It acknowledges that women can be wise and virtuous, and that they can produce sons who become great leaders. This challenges the patriarchal attitudes that devalued women and viewed them as inferior to men.
9.2 Women's Potential for Enlightenment
The Buddha explicitly affirmed women's potential for enlightenment, which was a revolutionary teaching in the context of ancient Indian society. In the Kundala Kesi Jataka, the Buddha states:
"Naso sabbesu thanesu - Puriso hoti pandito
Itthipi pandita honti – tattha tattha vicakkana"
"Not in all places is a man wise; women also are wise and expert in various matters."
This verse affirms that wisdom is not restricted to men but is equally available to women. It challenges the Brahmanical view that women are unintelligent and incapable of spiritual development.
The Buddha also affirmed that women could achieve the highest spiritual goal, Nibbana. In the Therigatha, the collection of verses by early Buddhist nuns, women testify to their realization of enlightenment. This demonstrates that women's spiritual potential was not merely theoretical but was realized in practice by women who followed the Buddha's path.
### 9.3 The Establishment of the Bhikkhuni Order
Perhaps the most significant evidence of the Buddha's progressive attitude toward women is his establishment of a monastic order for women (Bhikkhuni Sangha). Despite the objections of his disciple Ananda, who questioned whether women could achieve liberation, the Buddha established the Bhikkhuni Sangha, enabling women to renounce the household life and devote themselves to spiritual practice.
The establishment of the Bhikkhuni Sangha was a revolutionary act that provided women with an alternative to the patriarchal structures of family life. Women who joined the Bhikkhuni Sangha were able to escape the control of fathers and husbands, pursue spiritual practice under the guidance of the Buddha, and achieve liberation from suffering.
Although the Buddha established rules for the Bhikkhuni Sangha that placed it under the authority of the Bhikkhu Sangha (the monastic order for men), this should be understood in the context of ancient Indian society. The Buddha was responding to the realities of his time and seeking to ensure the acceptance of the Bhikkhuni Sangha in a patriarchal culture. Despite these restrictions, the establishment of the Bhikkhuni Sangha was a significant advance for women's spiritual opportunities.
9.4 The Sattabhariya Sutta and Women's Roles
The Sattabhariya Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya further demonstrates the Buddha's progressive attitude toward women. In this sutta, the Buddha describes different types of wives, including:
1) Matubhariya, a wife like a mother
2) Bhaginibhariya, a wife like a younger sister
3) Sakhibhariya, a wife like a friend
4) Dasibhariya, a wife like a servant
This classification acknowledges the various roles that women can play in marriage and affirms the value of women who are wise, virtuous, and respectful. It also suggests that the ideal relationship between husband and wife is one of friendship and mutual respect rather than domination and subordination.
The Buddha also praised women who are devoted to their husbands and families, but he did not restrict women to these roles. The establishment of the Bhikkhuni Sangha provided women with an alternative to marriage and family life, enabling them to pursue spiritual practice without the constraints of patriarchal domesticity.
9.5 Women in the Pali Canon
The Pali Canon contains numerous accounts of women who achieved spiritual excellence. The Therigatha, the collection of verses by early Buddhist nuns, provides powerful testimony to women's spiritual achievements. Women such as Kisagotami, Patacara, and Dhammadinna are praised for their wisdom and spiritual attainment.
These accounts demonstrate that women were not merely passive recipients of the Buddha's teachings but active participants in the spiritual community. They became teachers, preachers, and spiritual guides, playing important roles in the transmission of the Buddha's teachings.
The Pali Canon also contains examples of women who challenged the Buddha and engaged in spiritual debate. The nun Soma, for example, engages in a dialogue with Mara in which she affirms women's spiritual potential and challenges the patriarchal assumption that women are intellectually and spiritually inferior.
9.6 Buddhism as a Golden Period for Women
Buddhism can be considered a golden period for women because the Nibbana can be achieved by both men and women without any discrimination. The Buddha was the first religious leader who gave women equal and unfettered opportunities in the field of spiritual development.
Although He had pointed out on several occasions the natural tendencies and weaknesses of women, He had also given due credit to their abilities and capabilities. He truly paved the way for women to lead a full religious life. They were able to develop and purify their minds and realize the bliss of Nibbana just as men were.
This does not mean that Buddhism is entirely without patriarchal elements. The later Buddhist tradition, particularly as it developed in South and Southeast Asia, introduced restrictions on women's religious participation that were not present in the Buddha's teachings. However, the core teachings of Buddhism affirm women's spiritual equality and provide a foundation for challenging later patriarchal developments.
10. Conclusion
The different attitudes relating to gender in various religious traditions reveal a complex picture of both discrimination and liberation. Since the world originated, different attitudes relating to gender can be seen in human history. These periods can be divided into two main periods: golden periods and dark periods.
The Vedic period represents a relatively positive era for women, with women participating freely in religious, social, and intellectual life. The Brahmanical period, by contrast, represents a dark period in which women were systematically subordinated to male authority through legal codes such as the Laws of Manu. Women were defined as sinful and unintelligent, and their value was reduced to their sexual and reproductive functions.
Jainism presents a complex picture, with the Digambara sect maintaining patriarchal restrictions on women while the Svetambara sect provides women with more opportunities for religious participation. Islam contains both liberating and restrictive elements regarding gender, with the Quran affirming women's spiritual equality while also establishing gender-specific roles and responsibilities.
Christianity also presents a complex picture, with the teachings of Jesus and Paul containing both egalitarian and patriarchal elements. The debate over women's ordination reflects the ongoing struggle within Christianity to reconcile its liberating and restrictive elements. Shinto provides women with relatively egalitarian opportunities for religious participation, reflecting the broader Japanese cultural context.
Buddhism can be considered the golden period for women because the Nibbana can be achieved by both men and women without any discrimination. The Buddha was the first religious leader who gave women equal and unfettered opportunities in the field of spiritual development. Although He had pointed out on several occasions the natural tendencies and weaknesses of women, He had also given due credit to their abilities and capabilities. He truly paved the way for women to lead a full religious life. They were able to develop and purify their minds and realize the bliss of Nibbana just as men were.
The study of gender in religious contexts is essential for understanding both historical patterns of discrimination and contemporary possibilities for transformation. Religious traditions are not static but are constantly evolving, and they contain resources for both maintaining and challenging gender hierarchies. The challenge for contemporary believers and scholars is to recover the liberating elements of their traditions while acknowledging and challenging the restrictive ones.
As one scholar observes, "the future of gender relations in religious traditions depends on the willingness of believers to engage critically with their traditions, acknowledging both their liberating and restrictive elements and working to transform the latter in light of the former." This requires a careful and honest engagement with religious texts, histories, and practices, as well as a commitment to justice and equality.
Bibliography
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Chakravarti, Uma. "Gender and Religion: The Case of Buddhism." In Women in World Religions, edited by Arvind Sharma. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Gross, Rita M. Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993.
King, Ursula. Women and Spirituality: Voices of Protest and Promise. London: Macmillan, 1989.
Mernissi, Fatima. The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1991.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology. Boston: Beacon Press, 1983.
Sharma, Arvind, ed. Women in World Religions. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Tsomo, Karma Lekshe, ed. Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Tucker, Mary Evelyn. "Religion and Gender: The Case of Japan." In Women in World Religions, edited by Arvind Sharma. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Wilson, Nancy. "Women and the Buddha's Path." In Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations, edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
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