Abstract
The Anuradhapura period (circa 377 BCE to 1017 CE) represents the golden age of Theravada Buddhist scholarship in Sri Lanka, during which monastic institutions emerged as vibrant centers of learning, literary production, and doctrinal preservation. This comprehensive academic inquiry examines the scholarly activities of Buddhist monks during this transformative era, investigating the establishment of major monastic fraternities, the preservation and translation of commentarial literature, the transcription of the Tipitaka, and the production of original Pali and Sinhala works. Through systematic analysis of primary sources including the Mahavamsa, Culavamsa, commentarial literature, and archaeological evidence, alongside engagement with contemporary scholarship, this article demonstrates that the Anuradhapura period witnessed an unprecedented flourishing of Buddhist scholarship that established Sri Lanka as the preeminent center of Theravada orthodoxy. The investigation reveals that the Mahavihara, Abhayagiri, and Jetavana monasteries functioned as proto-universities, attracting scholars from across the Buddhist world and producing works that continue to shape Theravada Buddhism to the present day. The analysis examines the contributions of eminent scholar-monks including Ven. Buddhaghosa, Ven. Buddhadatta, and Ven. Dhammapala, whose translations and commentaries systematized Theravada doctrine and established the Pali commentarial tradition. The article explores the historical context of the Aluvihara Council under King Vattagamini Abhaya, during which the Tipitaka was first committed to writing, and examines the subsequent development of manuscript culture and literary production. The study engages with the scholarly debate on the relationship between Sinhala commentarial traditions and Pali translations, considering how the Mahavihara tradition preserved and transmitted Buddhist learning. The article concludes that the scholarly activities of Anuradhapura period monks represent one of the most significant achievements in Buddhist history, establishing the textual and doctrinal foundations of Theravada Buddhism that continue to guide practitioners worldwide.
1. Introduction
The Anuradhapura period stands as a watershed era in the history of Theravada Buddhism, marking the establishment of the Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka and the development of a sophisticated scholarly culture that would preserve and transmit the Dhamma for over a millennium. From the arrival of Arahant Mahinda in the 3rd century BCE to the eventual abandonment of the ancient capital in the 11th century CE, Anuradhapura served as the spiritual and intellectual heart of Sri Lankan Buddhism, nurturing monastic institutions that produced commentaries, translations, and original works of enduring significance.
The scholarly activities of Buddhist monks during this period represent one of the most remarkable achievements in Buddhist history. As one recent study notes, "Mahavihara, Abhayagiriya, and Jethavanarama, stand as exemplars of a rich educational tradition" that anticipated the modern university concept . These institutions encompassed a broad spectrum of curricula, covering areas such as languages, religion, sciences, mathematics, and the arts, and attracted scholars from across Asia. The educational infrastructure was comprehensive, with provisions for laboratories, libraries, hospitals, hostels for lay students, and almshouses. These sangharamas were more than just centers of religious learning; they were integrated institutions of holistic education .
The significance of this scholarly tradition cannot be overstated. It was during the Anuradhapura period that the Tipitaka was first committed to writing, that the Sinhala commentaries were translated into Pali, and that the great Pali commentators Ven. Buddhaghosa, Ven. Buddhadatta, and Ven. Dhammapala produced their monumental works. These achievements established the textual and doctrinal foundations of Theravada Buddhism and secured Sri Lanka's position as the preeminent center of Theravada orthodoxy.
This article undertakes a comprehensive examination of the scholarly activities of Buddhist monks during the Anuradhapura period, proceeding through several interconnected dimensions of analysis. It begins with an examination of the establishment of the Anuradhapura Kingdom and the key monarchs who supported Buddhist scholarship. It then examines the major monastic fraternities and the scholarly monks who contributed to Buddhist learning. The analysis investigates the scholarly activities of monks, including the writing of Sinhala commentaries, the translation of these commentaries into Pali, the transcription of the Tipitaka, and the production of original works. The article engages with contemporary scholarship on Anuradhapura period education and literary production, considering the relationship between Sinhala and Pali traditions. Finally, the article concludes with a synthesis of the findings and their implications for understanding the development of Theravada Buddhism.
2. The Establishment of the Anuradhapura Kingdom and Its Special Monarchs
2.1 The Founding of Anuradhapura
The Anuradhapura kingdom represents the first major civilization of Sri Lanka and the cradle of its Buddhist tradition. After the arrival of Prince Vijaya and his followers from India, his minister named Anuradha built a village called Anuradhapura. This settlement later developed into the capital of the first major Sri Lankan kingdom and remained the political and religious center of the island for over a millennium.
King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, established the administrative framework that would support both political stability and religious development. He fixed village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village headmen. He constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. He brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, creating the conditions for the flourishing of Buddhism.
2.2 The Arrival of Buddhism Under King Devanam Piya Tissa
The establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka occurred during the reign of King Devanam Piya Tissa (circa 247-207 BCE). This period witnessed the arrival of Arahant Mahinda, the son of Emperor Asoka of India, who brought the Buddha's teaching to the island and converted the king and his court.
The Mahavamsa records that King Devanam Piya Tissa, while hunting, encountered Arahant Mahinda and his companions at Mihintale. The Arahant's discourse on the Culahatthipadopama Sutta converted the king to Buddhism, and the religion quickly spread throughout the island. The king established the Mahavihara (Great Monastery) in Anuradhapura, which became the citadel of Theravada orthodoxy for over a thousand years .
2.3 King Dutthagamini: Unifier and Patron of Buddhism
King Dutthagamini (161-137 BCE) unified the whole country under the Anuradhapura Kingdom and became one of the most celebrated patrons of Buddhism in Sri Lankan history. His defeat of the Tamil king Elara and his subsequent patronage of Buddhist institutions marked a turning point in the development of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
Dutthagamini constructed the Ruwanwelisaya, one of the largest stupas in the world, and undertook numerous other religious constructions. His support for the Sangha established the pattern of royal patronage that would sustain Buddhist institutions throughout the Anuradhapura period. As one scholar notes, "the politics of ancient Sri Lanka was greatly influenced by the involvement of Buddhist monks," and this involvement was often supported by royal patronage .
2.4 King Vattagamini Abhaya and the Aluvihara Council
King Vattagamini Abhaya (circa 89-77 BCE) played a pivotal role in the history of Buddhist literature through his patronage of the Aluvihara Council, during which the Tipitaka was first committed to writing. As one study explains, "prior to its documentation, the Tipitaka was maintained through an oral tradition, passed down by Bhanaka monks. However, crises such as the 'Baminithiya famine' and foreign invasions posed serious threats to the continuation of this oral transmission" .
The decision to commit the Tipitaka to writing marked a turning point in Buddhist literary history. As the same study notes, "The transition from oral to written tradition marked a significant turning point in the history of Buddhist literature in Sri Lanka" . This transition established a more stable foundation for Buddhist literature and enabled the subsequent development of commentarial and exegetical traditions.
3. Scholarly Buddhist Monks in the Anuradhapura Period
3.1 The Major Monastic Fraternities
The scholarly activities of monks during the Anuradhapura period were organized around three major monastic fraternities: the Mahavihara, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavana. Each of these institutions developed distinctive approaches to Buddhist learning and practice, contributing to the rich intellectual culture of the period.
The Mahavihara was the earliest and most famous monastic establishment in Anuradhapura. It was founded by King Devanam Piya Tissa and "for over a thousand years functioned as the citadel of Theravada orthodoxy" . Its residents, claiming to represent the orthodox tradition of Sri Lankan Buddhism, referred to themselves as the Theriya Nikaya (or Theravada) . It was at the Mahavihara that the earliest Buddhist commentaries in Sinhala had been preserved, and it was also there that in the 5th century CE they came to be translated into Pali.
The Abhayagiri Monastery arose some two hundred years after the Mahavihara and became an equally prominent center of learning. According to historical records, King Vattagamini Abhaya built the Abhayagiri Vihara on the site of a Jain monastery in gratitude for support in fighting off foreign invaders . It was less conservative than the Mahavihara and "was not averse to exposing itself to new developments in Buddhist thought and practice. With its more open and liberal policy, it encouraged the study of Mahayana doctrines while maintaining its Theravada identity" . When the Chinese monk Faxian visited between 410 and 412, he described the grandeur of the stupa and stated that there were 5,000 monks studying there .
The Jetavana Monastery emerged in the 4th century CE and became the third major center of Buddhist learning in Anuradhapura. While all three monasteries "came within the pale of Theravada Buddhism there were differences among them on matters pertaining to doctrinal interpretation and monastic practices" . These differences contributed to a vibrant intellectual culture that encouraged debate and scholarly production.
3.2 Early Sinhala Commentaries and Scholars
Sri Lankan scholar-monks produced a body of commentarial literature in the Sinhala language that became famous throughout the Buddhist world. These commentaries, known as Atthakatha, provided the interpretive framework for understanding the Tipitaka and shaped the development of Theravada doctrine.
The major Sinhala commentaries included:
1. Maha Atthakatha (Great Commentary) of the Mahavihara
2. Kurundi Atthakatha, so named because of its having been written at the Kurundaveha Vihara in Ceylon
3. Paccariya Atthakatha (Mahapaccari or Great Raft), so called because it was composed on a raft in Ceylon
4. Sankhepa Atthakatha (Short Commentary), possibly of South Indian origin
5. Andhaka Atthakatha, handed down at Kanchipura in South India
These commentaries "doubtless embraced various shades of opinion, and represented different schools of thought" . Their existence demonstrates the sophisticated scholarly culture that flourished in Anuradhapura and attracted scholars from across the Buddhist world.
3.3 Eminent Scholars from India
As a result of the scholarly reputation of Sri Lankan Buddhism, many foreign monks came to Anuradhapura to study and contribute to Buddhist learning. Among the most distinguished were:
1. Ven. Buddhaghosa
2. Ven. Buddhadatta
3. Ven. Dhammapala
4. Ven. Mahanama
5. Ven. Dhammaruci
These scholars, arriving from various parts of India, found at the Mahavihara a rich tradition of Sinhala commentarial literature and undertook the monumental task of translating these works into Pali, making them accessible to the wider Buddhist world.
4. The Scholarly Activities of Monks During the Anuradhapura Period
4.1 The Sinhala Commentarial Tradition
The earliest and most significant scholarly activity of monks in the Anuradhapura period was the production of Sinhala commentaries on the Tipitaka. Sri Lankan scholar-monks wrote Atthakatha in the Sinhala language that became famous throughout the Buddhist world. As one source explains, "the commentaries so handed down in the schools at various times and places had already been put together into treatises, and books had been made to them, written in the native dialects" .
These commentaries provided detailed explanations of the Buddha's teachings, including grammatical and lexical explanations, doctrinal expositions, and historical narratives. They were essential for understanding the Tipitaka and preserving the tradition.
4.2 The Translation of Commentaries into Pali
As the result of the Sinhala commentarial tradition, eminent scholars such as Ven. Buddhadatta and Ven. Buddhaghosa came to Sri Lanka to study the Sinhala Atthakatha and translate them into Pali. Ven. Buddhaghosa studied the Sinhala commentaries under the guidance of the Thera Sanghapala, who lived in a hermitage at Anuradhapura. This is recorded in the Mahavamsa and Visuddhimaggasanna: "MahaAtthakathanca mahapaccaremeva ca –Kurundi cati tissopi sihala kattha ima Buddhamittohi namena vissutassa yasassino vinayanussa dhirassa sutva therassa santike" .
Buddhaghosa's translations were not mechanical renderings but involved creative synthesis and systematization. As the sources indicate, he took the Sinhala commentaries and "translated, according to the grammatical rules of the Magadhas, which is the root of all languages, the whole of the Singhalese Atthakatha (into Pali)" . The first book he wrote in Pali was the Samantapasadika, a commentary on the Vinaya, followed by the Visuddhimagga, which he completed before the Atthakatha translations.
4.3 The Transcription of the Tipitaka
Another major scholarly activity was the transcription of the Tipitaka from oral to written form. During the period of King Vattagamini Abhaya, monks faced difficult times and decided to commit the oral Tipitaka to written form. The Tipitaka was written at Matale Anuviharaya, an event that marked a turning point in Buddhist literary history.
As one study explains, "The transition from oral to written tradition marked a significant turning point in the history of Buddhist literature in Sri Lanka... the transcription of the Tripitaka led to a significant shift in Sri Lanka's literary history, providing a strong base for the growth of written literature. Today's publishing systems, including the methods of writing, copying, and distributing texts, began with past practices" .
4.4 Original Literary Contributions
The Anuradhapura period witnessed the production of numerous original works in both Pali and Sinhala. Ven. Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga is the most famous example, but many other works were produced by scholars of the period.
Some kings themselves were scholars. King Moggallana II was known as an intellectual and an incomparable poet. King Buddhadasa wrote Sarartha Sangraha, a text on medicine. King Kassapa V wrote Dhampiya Atuva Getapadaya, a work that involved many sources. King Vijayabahu I translated the Dhammasangani into Sinhala. King Parakramabahu VI composed Ruvanmala, a lexicon for poets.
There was a steady output of translations, with some Sinhala items translated into Pali and then translated back again into Sinhala, as in the case of the Visuddhimagga. However, G.P. Malalasekera noted that most important items were in Sinhala without Pali translations, indicating the vitality of the Sinhala literary tradition.
4.5 The Pali Language as an International Vehicle
The translation of commentaries into Pali established the Pali language as the international vehicle for Theravada Buddhism. As one source notes, "Ven.Buddhaghosa accomplished a great task by systematically arranging all the existing works on the Buddhist scriptures, which had up to this time laid scattered and unarranged" .
"From the time of Aluvihara Council numerous works were composed on the Canon and the commentaries. The Council at Aluvihara laid down the Canon and system of Theravada Buddhist thought in the early stages of the Order. The accretions and different interpretations on these words were finally codified and coherently arranged by Ven.Buddhaghosa. Thus the Theravada teachings received a further definition and settlement at the hands of an authoritative scholar" .
This established "the pre-eminence of Sri Lanka over all other countries in the genuineness of its traditional heritage of the Buddhist religion and justified her claim to be the home of Theravada in his day" .
4.6 Scholarly Recognition and Infrastructure
The scholarly culture of the Anuradhapura period was supported by a sophisticated infrastructure that resembled modern universities. "These ancient learning centres encompassed a broad spectrum of curricula, covering areas such as languages, religion, sciences, mathematics, and the arts. Recognitions and degrees were awarded to scholars, as demonstrated by names like Vagishwara, Kavichakravarti, Kaviraja, Vidyapati, and Kavikala Sarvajna, among others" .
The educational infrastructure "was comprehensive, with provisions for laboratories, libraries, hospitals, Janthaghara (hostels for lay students), and almshouses. These sangharamas were more than just centers of religious learning; they were integrated institutions of holistic education" .
Furthermore, "they displayed an outward-facing orientation, engaging in international exchanges similar to their Indian counterparts, Nalanda, Valabhi, Taxila, and others, which held affiliations with countries like China and Java" . This international orientation contributed to the scholarly reputation of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
4.7 Contributions of Eminent Scholar-Monks
Ven. Buddhaghosa stands as the most celebrated scholar of the Anuradhapura period. "Buddhaghosa was not only a metaphysician. His scholarship was wide and deep and of an encyclopaedic character. His works reveal his knowledge of Astronomy, Grammar, Geography, of the Indian sects and tribes and kings and nobles of Buddhist India, of the fauna and flora of the country, of ancient manners and customs of the land, and of the history of Ceylon" .
"The quality and bulk of the work produced in a single life time show that Buddhaghosa must have been toiling steadily and indefatigably, year in and year out, working out the mission with which he was entrusted by his teacher, immured in a cell of the great monastery at Anurādhapura" .
Ven. Dhammapala, an inhabitant of South India, was also "a celebrity of the Mahāvihāra" . T.W. Rhys Davids was of the opinion that Dhammapala and Buddhaghosa "seem to have been educated at the same University... they hold very similar views, they appeal to the same authorities, they have the same method of exegesis, they have reached the same stage in philological and etymological science" .
Dhammapala's works included commentaries on the Nettipakarana, Itivuttaka, Udana, Cariyapitaka, Theragatha, Therigatha, Vimanavatthu, and Petavatthu, as well as the Paramatthamanjusa and Linatthapakasini. "From his works it appears that Dhammapala was well read and well informed. His explanation of terms is very clear. His commentaries throw considerable light on the social, religious, moral, and philosophical ideas of time like the commentaries of Buddhāghosa" .
5. Conclusion
The scholarly activities of Buddhist monks during the Anuradhapura period represent one of the most significant achievements in Buddhist history. Through the preservation and translation of commentarial literature, the transcription of the Tipitaka, and the production of original works, the monks of this period established the textual and doctrinal foundations of Theravada Buddhism that continue to guide practitioners worldwide.
The Anuradhapura period is the first period of the establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and numerous services were performed by the monks. The Vinaya was considered the main focus during this period because most commentators wrote their books with respect for the Vinaya. At this time, the Mahavihara was very famous because of its Sinhala commentaries. Ven. Buddhadatta and Ven. Buddhaghosa came to the Mahavihara and learned those Sinhala books and translated them into Pali, which became an international language.
Buddhist monasteries were centers for learning and scholarship. The Buddhist tradition of reasoning supported scholarship and learning. The Mahavihara, Tissamaharama, Kaladighava-pidvara Vihara, and Kallagama Mandalarama were centers of scholarship in the Anuradhapura period. The close contact the Mahavihara maintained with South Indian Theravada centers is visible from the regular visits of scholars from these areas. This contact had grown from early times .
As Ven. Walpola Rahula wrote, "Freedom of discussion was an important feature highly esteemed. To be humble and not to be proud of one's learning was regarded as sign of great scholarship." This ethos of humble scholarship and open debate contributed to the flourishing of Buddhist learning during this period.
Today, we have the Pali written Tipitaka as a result of the Anuradhapura monks' scholarly activities. As one study concludes, "the transcription of the Tripitaka led to a significant shift in Sri Lanka's literary history, providing a strong base for the growth of written literature. Today's publishing systems, including the methods of writing, copying, and distributing texts, began with past practices" .
6. Bibliography
Primary Sources
Culavamsa. The Later Chronicle of Sri Lanka.
Mahavamsa. The Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka.
Visuddhimagga. Buddhaghosa's Path of Purification.
Secondary Sources
Basnayake, H. T. Sri Lankan Monastic Architecture. Sri Satguru Publications, 1986.
Blaze, L. E. The Story of Lanka. Asian Educational Services, 1995.
Chandrika, A. M. M. "A Historical Analysis of the Political Participation of Buddhist Monks During the Polonnaruwa Period." Peradeniya University Research Sessions, 2012.
Ellawala, H. Social History of Early Ceylon. Department of Cultural Affairs, 1969.
Ludowyk, E. F. C. The Story of Ceylon. Navrang Booksellers & Publishers, 1985.
Mendis, Ranjan Chinthaka. The Story of Anuradhapura. Lakshmi Mendis, 1999.
Mendis, Vernon L. B. The Rulers of Sri Lanka. S. Godage & Brothers, 2000.
Siriwardena, A.S. and Wickramasinghe, N.G.I.M. "An Investigation into the Implementation of the Modern University Concept in the Buddhist Sangharamas Concerning the Academic Development of the Anuradhapura Period." Proceeding of the First Desk Research Conference of the Library of the University of Kelaniya, 2023.
"A Historical Study on the Transcription of the Tripitaka and Manuscript Writing during the Anuradhapura Period." Sri Lanka Library Review, Vol. 39, Issue 2, 2025, pp. 77-96.
Historical Commentaries and Grammars
Buddhadatta, Polatte Sri. Pali Literature. 1st Chapter, Page 2; 5th Chapter, Page 162.
Gray, Buddhagosuppatti. Introduction, p.31, London, 1982.
Law, B.C. A History of Pali Literature.
Rhys Davids, T.W. and Stede, William. The Pali-English Dictionary. Pali Text Society, 1921.
Vijayasinha. Mahavamsa (English translation). Colombo, 1909.
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