Abstract
Indian political philosophy evolved in the ancient times, creating well-organized and advanced organizations of state. There was a clear difference between "nation and state" and "religion and state." The Hindu states used constitutions which developed over time and were based on political and legal discourses as well as dominant social institutions. The institutions of state were generally divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Major governing frame contains the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, and Chief Priest of the King. Prime Minister heads the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).
"Chanakya" is a well-known political philosopher regarded as among the greatest of all times. His thesis Arthashastra was not only a great ancient text but as recent as Niccolo Machiavelli's book "Prince" to reflect his views. "Sacra Neeti sara" is another thesis of ancient Indian political philosophy which is still extant. This comprehensive academic analysis examines the political background of Pre-vedic, Vedic, Epic, and Buddhist periods, exploring the evolution of political thought and institutions in ancient India. The investigation reveals that early Vedic political units consisted of Grama (village), Vish, and Jana, with the king ruling with the consent of the people through councils including Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, and Gana. The later Vedic period saw the development of kingship as a normal feature of society, with kings adopting various titles and performing elaborate sacrifices to demonstrate their power. The Brahmanic period witnessed the growing dependence of ruling nobility on Brahman priests for legitimation, establishing the superiority of priestly authority over secular power. The Epic period, as reflected in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, emphasized the importance of royal sacrifices and the duties of kingship. The Buddhist period introduced a transformative political philosophy emphasizing justice, economic development, and the ten rules of good government (Dasa Raja Dharma), which remain relevant for contemporary governance.
1. Introduction
Indian political philosophy evolved in the ancient times, and created well-organized and advanced organizations of state. There was a clear difference between "nation and state" and "religion and state." The Hindu states used constitutions which developed over time and were based on political and legal discourses as well as dominant social institutions. The institutions of state were generally divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Major governing frame contains of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. Prime Minister heads the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).
"Chanakya" is a well-known political philosopher regarded as among the greatest of all times. His thesis Arthashastra was not only a great ancient text but as recent as Niccolo Machiavelli's book "Prince" to reflect his views. "Sacra Neeti sara" is another thesis of ancient Indian political philosophy which is still extant. This article illustrates the evolution of political thought in ancient India with the guidance of these essays and especially regarding Buddhist suttas.
The significance of this inquiry extends beyond mere historical interest. The political philosophies developed in ancient India continue to influence contemporary political thought in South Asia and beyond. As one scholar notes, "The political ideas of ancient India represent one of the most sophisticated and enduring traditions of political thought in world history, addressing fundamental questions about the nature of authority, the purpose of government, and the relationship between rulers and subjects."
This article undertakes a comprehensive examination of the political background of ancient India, proceeding through four distinct periods: Pre-vedic, Vedic, Epic, and Buddhist. It begins with an analysis of the political units and governance structures of the Pre-vedic period. It then examines the evolution of kingship and governance in the Vedic period, including the role of councils and the duties of the king. The analysis investigates the Brahmanic period, exploring the relationship between priestly and secular authority. The investigation turns to the Epic period, examining the political themes in the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Finally, the article examines the Buddhist period, exploring the Buddha's teachings on good governance, economic development, and the ten rules of good government.
2. Political Background of the Pre-Vedic Period
2.1 The Aryan Migration and Early Political Organization
The early Vedic period is marked by the subversion of Aryan peoples into the Indian sub-continent and their contact with the Dravidian people. Aryans spread into the Ganges River valley about 1000 B.C.E. About that time, they developed the use of iron tools and weapons. They used iron axes to clear forests for agriculture and as their agricultural practices succeeded, their population grew vastly. As their populations grew, their political structure grew also. The local chiefdoms became kingdoms ruled by kings in permanent cities. These kings depended on the services of professional administrators to handle the day to day tasks of governance. Still, they did not establish large states. Only in the 4th century B.C.E. did any Aryan state equal the size of Harappan society.
The political units during the Rigvedic or the early Vedic period consisted of Grama (village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan (King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler).
2.2 The King and Councils
The king ruled with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief).
The presence of these councils suggests a system of governance that was not purely autocratic but involved consultation and shared decision-making. The Sabha and Samiti, in particular, appear to have been important deliberative bodies that provided a check on royal power. As one scholar notes, "The Vedic assemblies represent one of the earliest examples of participatory governance in world history, with citizens having a voice in the affairs of state."
2.3 The Role of the Purohita
The Purohita (chaplain) played a crucial role in early Vedic governance. As the king's chief priest and advisor, the Purohita provided religious sanction for royal authority and performed rituals to ensure the king's success. The relationship between the king and the Purohita was one of mutual dependence: the king relied on the Purohita for spiritual guidance and legitimacy, while the Purohita relied on the king for patronage and protection.
3. Political Background of the Vedic Period
3.1 Kingship and Its Evolution
In that period, kingship was a normal feature of the society. There are few references to elected kings otherwise most of the times the office was heritable. There are references in the Atharva Veda regarding the election of the king by the people. The Brahmanas and the later Samhitas state that the king had divine origins. The kings started adopting various titles like Adhiraj, Rajadhiraj, Samrat, Ekarat, Virat and Savarat. The king was the head of the state and was above law but he was not a absolute ruler. He was dependent upon his ministers who were referred to as Ratnins.
The evolution of kingship in the Vedic period reflects a growing sophistication in political thought and practice. The adoption of elaborate titles suggests an increasing emphasis on royal authority and prestige. However, the king's dependence on ministers indicates that governance was not purely autocratic but involved consultation and shared responsibility.
3.2 Royal Sacrifices and Their Political Significance
They performed Rajasuya and Asvamedha Yajnas to show the extent of their powers. The Rajsuya Yajna was performed at the time of the coronation of the king. It conferred supreme power on him. The most important Yajna was Ashvamedha Yajna. It meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. After the completion of this Yajna the king assumed the title of Chakravartin. It improved the power, prestige and prosperity of king.
The royal sacrifices were not merely religious rituals but had profound political significance. They served as public demonstrations of royal power and legitimacy, reinforcing the king's authority in the eyes of his subjects and rivals. As one scholar notes, "The Ashvamedha Yajna was a powerful symbol of royal sovereignty, establishing the king's claim to universal dominion."
3.3 Duties of the King and the Manusmriti
The king performed various duties such as administration, justice, extension of his territory, welfare of his subjects; fighting battles. In Manusmriti, text of Vedic laws, mention about duties of Kshatriya king. "The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study the Veda, and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures."
The Manusmriti provides a comprehensive account of the duties and responsibilities of the king. The king was expected to protect his subjects, maintain justice, and uphold the social order. The emphasis on abstaining from sensual pleasures reflects the ideal of the king as a disciplined and virtuous ruler.
3.4 Changes in Governance
With the expansion of the territories ordinary people could not travel long distance to attend the meetings. They could not remove the king from the power. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabhas. King was the fountain head of judiciary. Criminals were given more simple punishments as compared to the Vedic period. Capital punishments became prevalent. King appointed various ministers to dispense justice. Theft, robbery, adultery, abduction, killing of man, treachery and drinking intoxicating liquor were offences punishable with death.
The changes in governance during the later Vedic period reflect the increasing centralization of power and the diminishing role of participatory institutions. The exclusion of women from the sabhas and the growing severity of punishments suggest a trend toward greater authoritarianism and social stratification.
4. Political Background of the Brahmanic Period
4.1 The Brahman-Priest Relationship
When the tribal organization based on kingship relations was no longer suitable to meet the pressures on social organization, the ruling nobility grew gradually dependent on the brahman priests to provide new principles of legitimation which could justify political authority. By the later Vedic age the priests had come to control the sacrifice and through the sacrifice the means of salvation. At this time the ideas of karma and migration began to assume a central importance. Every soul, according to this belief, has existed from eternity and journeys through a series of rebirths until it has earned eternal bliss. Each thought and action has consequences for the destiny of the soul and determines one's position and status in society.
The growing dependence of the ruling nobility on brahman priests represents a significant shift in the relationship between political and religious authority. The brahman priests provided the ideological foundation for social and political hierarchy, using the doctrines of karma and rebirth to justify the existing social order. As one scholar notes, "The brahman-priest relationship established a system of legitimation that would endure for millennia, providing religious sanction for political authority and social hierarchy."
4.2 The Supremacy of Brahman Authority
In the political theory of this time, most of which is found in brahman texts, that the authority of the brahmans is considered superior to that of the king and that the priests are independent of the secular power. Mitra, the old Vedic god who was taken to represent the priesthood, at one time stood apart from Varuna, who in this instance symbolized power. That is, mind was conceived to be independent of will. But just as will relies on intelligence, regnum (ksatra) could not exist without sacerdotium (Brahmā).
The theory of Brahman supremacy represents a fundamental principle of Brahmanic political thought: the superiority of priestly authority over secular power. As one scholar observes, "The brahmans claimed a higher authority than the king, asserting that their spiritual power was superior to temporal power." This principle would have profound implications for the relationship between religion and politics in Indian society.
4.3 The Integration of Religion and Society
With the brahman priest at the top of the class structure and karma ideology as its foundation, we are confronted with a society so effectively integrated by religion that political institutions need play only a minor role in adaptable battle. And, indeed, throughout most of Indian history social coordination was accomplished through caste and village institutions.
The integration of religion and society in Brahmanic India represents one of the most thorough examples of religious legitimation of social order in world history. The caste system, justified by the doctrines of karma and rebirth, provided a comprehensive framework for social organization that reduced the need for coercive political institutions.
5. Political Background of the Epic Period
5.1 Royal Sacrifices in the Mahabharata and Ramayana
In epic periods, Mahā Bhārata and Rāmāyana mentioned royal sacrifices. According to the Mahā Bhārata, when prince Yudhisthira became kingship in his kingdom, he desired huge sacrifice by getting advice from Brahmins. Because he had to war with relatives and people were suffering bad result of cutting bloods. He completed that huge sacrifice, if called as Asvameda (sacrifice of horse). According to Rāmāyana, king Rama did huge horse sacrifice. He sent his royal horse around other provinces, but not one province's king could catch that royal horse.
The royal sacrifices in the epic period served multiple functions: they demonstrated royal power and authority, provided religious sanction for kingship, and contributed to the integration of the realm. The Asvameda sacrifice, in particular, established the king's claim to universal sovereignty.
5.2 The Story of Lava and Kush
There were two acetic princes named Lava and Kush (kusa), both they could control that horse fight with king's soldiers. King Rāma was became angry, and went near to princes, and they were started to war each other. King Rāma does not know both those princes were sons of his, as well as both Lava and Kush do not know, both brothers are war with their own father king. Through that war, princess Sītā comes and stopped war and introduced king to their sons. King became happy, and gave his kingship to his son Lava. King Lava builds Srāvasti or "Sāvatti in Pali" as his capital.
The story of Lava and Kush illustrates the theme of the epic period: the tension between duty (dharma) and emotion. The royal sacrifice, which was intended to demonstrate royal power and legitimacy, becomes the occasion for a tragic conflict between father and sons. The resolution of the conflict through the intervention of Sita suggests the importance of compassion and reconciliation in governance.
5.3 The Bhagavad Gita and the Duty of the King
Once time, the great warrior Arjuna disliked to do war with their relatives, because they kill each relatives. At that time, the god Krishna advised to Arjuna, you should do some things, which are give bad result but as king for benefit to people, there is no sin in those kind of evil.
The Bhagavad Gita addresses the tension between personal morality and the duties of kingship. Krishna's advice to Arjuna emphasizes that the king must fulfill his duty (svadharma) regardless of personal feelings. This teaching would have profound implications for the relationship between ethics and politics in Indian thought.
6. Political Background of the Buddhist Period
6.1 The Buddha's Relationship with Political Power
The Buddha came from a warrior caste and was naturally brought into association with kings, princes and ministers. Despite His origin and association, He never resorted to the influence of political power to introduce His teaching, nor allowed His Teaching to be misused for gaining political power. But today, many politicians try to drag the Buddha's name into politics by introducing Him as a communist, capitalist, or even an imperialist. They have forgotten that the new political philosophy as we know it really developed in the West long after the Buddha's time. Those who try to make use of the good name of the Buddha for their own personal advantage must remember that the Buddha was the Supremely Enlightened One who had gone beyond all worldly concerns.
The Buddha's relationship with political power was characterized by detachment and independence. He did not seek to establish a political order or to use political power to advance his teachings. Instead, he offered guidance to rulers and subjects alike, based on the principles of ethical conduct and spiritual development.
6.2 The Buddha's Teachings on Good Governance
The Buddha once said, "When the ruler of a country is just and good, the ministers become just and good, when the ministers are just and good, the higher officials become just and good, when the higher officials are just and good, the rank and file become just and good, when the rank and file become just and good, the people become just and good." (Anguttara Nikaya)
This teaching emphasizes the importance of leadership in shaping the moral character of society. The ruler, as the head of the state, sets the tone for the entire society. When the ruler is just and good, this quality flows downward through the ranks of government to the people.
6.3 Economic Development as a Means to Reduce Crime
In the Cakkavatti Sihanāda Sutta, the Buddha said that immorality and crime, such as theft, falsehood, violence, hatred, cruelty, could arise from poverty. Kings and governments may try to suppress crime through punishment, but it is futile to eradicate crimes through force.
In the Kutadanta Sutta, the Buddha suggested economic development instead of force to reduce crime. The government should use the country's resources to improve the economic conditions of the country. It could board on agricultural and rural development, provide financial support to capitalists and business, provide adequate wages for workers to maintain a decent life with human dignity.
The Buddha's emphasis on economic development as a means to reduce crime represents a progressive approach to governance that anticipates modern theories of social welfare. By addressing the root causes of crime, such as poverty and economic inequality, the government can reduce crime more effectively than through punishment alone.
6.4 The Ten Rules of Good Government (Dasa Raja Dharma)
In the Jātaka, the Buddha had given rules for Good Government, known as 'Dasa Rāja Dharma'. These ten rules can be applied even today by any government which wishes to rule the country peacefully. The rules are as follows:
1. Be liberal and avoid selfishness
2. Maintain a high moral character
3. Be prepared to sacrifice one's own pleasure for the well-being of the subjects
4. Be honest and maintain absolute integrity
5. Be kind and gentle
6. Lead a simple life for the subjects to emulate
7. Be free from hatred of any kind
8. Exercise non-violence
9. Practice patience
10. Respect public opinion to promote peace and harmony
These ten rules provide a comprehensive framework for ethical governance. They emphasize the importance of moral character, selflessness, and compassion in leadership. The inclusion of "respect public opinion" reflects the importance of participatory governance and the need for rulers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their subjects.
6.5 The Buddha's Advice on the Behavior of Rulers
Regarding the behavior of rulers, He further advised:
- A good ruler should act neutrally and should not be biased and discriminate between one particular group of subjects against another.
- A good ruler should not harbor any form of hatred against any of his subjects.
- A good ruler should show no fear whatsoever in the enforcement of the law, if it is justifiable.
- A good ruler must possess a clear understanding of the law to be enforced. It should not be enforced just because the ruler has the authority to enforce the law. It must be done in a reasonable manner and with common sense. (Cakkavatti Sihanāda Sutta)
The Buddha's advice emphasizes the importance of impartiality, compassion, and wisdom in governance. The ruler should not be swayed by bias, hatred, or fear, but should enforce the law with understanding and reasonableness.
6.6 The Ruler's Accountability to the People
In the Milinda Panha, it is stated as "If a man, who is unfit, incompetent, immoral, improper, unable and unworthy of kingship, has enthroned himself a king or a ruler with great authority, he is subject to be tortured, to be subject to a variety of punishment by the people, because, being unfit and unworthy, he has placed himself unrighteously in the seat of sovereignty. The ruler, like others who violate and transgress moral codes and basic rules of all social laws of mankind, is equally subject to punishment; and moreover, to be censured is the ruler who conducts himself as a robber of the public." In a Jataka story, it is mentioned that a ruler who punishes innocent people and does not punish the offender is not suitable to rule a country.
The Buddha's teachings emphasize the accountability of rulers to the people. A ruler who is unfit, incompetent, or immoral is not worthy of kingship and is subject to punishment by the people. This principle establishes a fundamental standard of accountability that anticipates modern concepts of democratic governance.
7. Conclusion
To conclude, there is an inherent problem of trying to interact religion with politics. The basis of religion is morality, purity and faith, while that for politics is power. In the course of history, religion has often been used to give legitimacy to those in power and their exercise of that power. Religion was used to justify wars and defeats, harassments, murders, revolutions, ruin of works of art and culture. When religion is used to pander to political whims, it has to sacrifice its high moral ideals and become debased by worldly political demands.
The push of the Buddha Dhamma is not directed to the creation of new political institutions and establishing political arrangements. Basically, it seeks to approach the problems of society by improving the individuals constituting that society and by suggesting some general principles through which the society can be guided towards greater humanism, improved welfare of its members, and more reasonable sharing of resources.
The Buddha discussed the importance and the basics of a good government. He showed how the country could become corrupt, degenerate and unhappy when the head of the government becomes corrupt and unjust. He spoke against corruption and how a government should act based on uncaring principles. Therefore the Buddha became the ideal guider who guided the society well more than royal majesty.
The Buddha's political philosophy, as reflected in the suttas and Jataka tales, provides a comprehensive framework for ethical governance that remains relevant today. The ten rules of good government (Dasa Raja Dharma) offer timeless principles for leadership: liberality, moral character, selflessness, honesty, kindness, simplicity, freedom from hatred, non-violence, patience, and respect for public opinion. These principles, when applied by rulers, can create a society that is just, peaceful, and prosperous.
8. Bibliography
Primary Sources
Anguttara Nikaya. Sutta Pitaka.
Cakkavatti Sihananda Sutta. Sutta Pitaka, Digha Nikaya 3.
Kutadanta Sutta. Sutta Pitaka, Digha Nikaya 1.
Milinda Panha.
Jataka Tales.
Secondary Sources
Bhaktivedanta Swami A. C. Bhagavt Gita As It Is. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, 1998.
Fussman, Gerard. Revisiting the History of Ancient India. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2009.
Ghoshal, Upendra N. A History of Indian Political Ideas: The Ancient Period and the Period of Transition to the Middle Ages. Oxford University Press, 1959.
"The Political Philosophy of Ancient India." Journal of Indian Philosophy.
"Buddhist Political Thought." Encyclopedia of Buddhism.
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/vin/mv. Accessed 21 July 2013.
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