Abstract
The Aggaññasutta, one of the long discourses of the Buddha found in the Dīghanikāya, presents a remarkable narrative of cosmic evolution, the origin of life, and the development of human society that bears striking parallels to modern scientific theories. This comprehensive academic analysis examines the content of the Aggaññasutta, investigating its description of world cycles, the appearance of life, the evolution of vegetation, the emergence of gender distinctions, and the origin of social and political institutions. Through systematic examination of the canonical text, commentarial literature, and contemporary scientific discourse, this article demonstrates that the Aggaññasutta offers an embryonic formulation of several theories that would later emerge in Western science, including the theory of panspermia and the evolutionary development of species. The investigation reveals that the sutta describes a cyclical universe that passes away and re-evolves, with beings from a luminous world (ābhassarasaṃvattanika) coming to earth, consistent with the panspermia theory that life may have originated elsewhere in the universe. The analysis explores the evolutionary progression of food sources from savoury earth to outgrowths, creeping plants, and finally rice, paralleling the biological evolution of species from simple to complex forms. The article examines the appearance of gender distinctions and the origin of social institutions, including the concept of the Mahāsammata or the Great Elect, which represents an early formulation of democratic political theory. The investigation engages with the sutta's fundamental Buddhist principles of change (aniccaṃ) and imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ), demonstrating their relevance for understanding both cosmological and social evolution. The article concludes that while the Aggaññasutta is expressed in mythological and narrative language, it contains profound insights that resonate with modern scientific understanding of cosmic and biological evolution.
1. Introduction
The Aggaññasutta is one of the long discourses of the Buddha found in the Dīghanikāya. It was preached by the Buddha to Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja at Sāvatthi. It examines the origin of the earth, of man and of society. It explains the evolution of vegetation, evolution of life, the origin of state, and the origin of social grades and political institutions.
The significance of the Aggaññasutta extends beyond its religious content. As one scholar observes, "The Aggaññasutta presents one of the most comprehensive cosmogonic narratives in early Buddhist literature, offering a systematic account of the origin and development of the world, life, and human society." The sutta's evolutionary framework anticipates many ideas that would later emerge in Western scientific thought, including the theory of evolution and the concept of panspermia.
This article undertakes a comprehensive examination of the theory of evolution as explained in the Aggaññasutta, proceeding through several interconnected dimensions of analysis. It begins with an introduction to the sutta and its context. It then examines the description of world cycles, the disappearance and re-evolution of the world. The analysis explores the panspermia theory and its parallels in the sutta, examining the concept of the luminous world and the arrival of beings from outer space. The investigation examines the appearance of the savoury earth, outgrowths, creeping plants, and rice, tracing the evolutionary progression of food sources. The article explores the appearance of distinctive features of males and females, the origin of social institutions, and the concept of the Mahāsammata. The conclusion synthesizes the various theories presented in the sutta and their significance for both Buddhist philosophy and modern science.
2. The Aggaññasutta: An Introduction
2.1 The Context of the Sutta
The Aggaññasutta is one of the long discourses of the Buddha found in the Dīghanikāya. It was preached by the Buddha to Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja at Sāvatthi. It examines the origin of the earth, of man and of society. It explains the evolution of vegetation, evolution of life, the origin of state, and the origin of social grades and political institutions.
The sutta was delivered in response to the two Brahmins' concerns about their status after joining the Buddha's order. As one scholar notes, "The Aggaññasutta was preached to address the Brahminical claims of superiority based on birth, presenting instead a narrative of social evolution based on moral conduct and collective choice."
2.2 The Structure of the Sutta
The Aggaññasutta follows a narrative structure that traces the evolution of the cosmos from its dissolution to the emergence of complex social institutions. The sutta can be divided into several sections:
1. The dissolution and re-evolution of the world
2. The appearance of beings from the luminous world
3. The evolution of food sources
4. The emergence of gender distinctions
5. The origin of social institutions
6. The classification of social grades
This structure reflects a systematic understanding of evolution that encompasses cosmic, biological, and social dimensions.
3. World Passes Away and Re-evolves
3.1 The Cyclical Universe
According to the content of the Sutta, there comes a time, after a long, long period, this world passes away (ayaṃ loko saṃvaṭṭati). When this happens, beings (sattā) have been reborn in the World of Radiance (luminous world - ābhassarasaṃvattanikā). And there they dwell, made of mind, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, traversing the air, continuing in glory; and thus they remain for a long, long period of time.
These beings seem to be beings not so equal to human beings. It seems that they have special features and skills. There comes also a time, when sooner or later this world begins to re-evolve. When this happens, beings who have deceased from the World of Radiance, usually comes to life as beings here.
The concept of a cyclical universe is a fundamental aspect of Buddhist cosmology. As one scholar explains, "Buddhist cosmology describes the timespan of the creation and dissolvement of alternate universes in different aeons." This cyclical understanding of cosmic time provides the framework for the evolutionary narrative of the Aggaññasutta.
3.2 The Concept of Cosmic Dissolution and Re-Evolution
The Aggaññasutta describes a universe that undergoes periodic dissolution and re-evolution. This concept is consistent with the broader Buddhist cosmological framework, which holds that the universe goes through cycles of formation, duration, dissolution, and emptiness.
The beings who survive the dissolution are reborn in the luminous world (ābhassarasaṃvattanikā). This world serves as a kind of cosmic refuge for beings during periods of universal dissolution. When the world re-evolves, beings from the luminous world are reborn into the newly formed world.
4. Panspermia Theory
4.1 The Sutta's Statement on the Origin of Life
The Aggaññasutta explicitly states that beings came to earth from outer space, and this idea is equal to the theory of Panspermia. Panspermia is a Greek word which literally means, "Seeds everywhere". The Panspermia theory states that the seeds of life exist all over the universe and can be propagated through space from one location to another.
It is very significant that the Aggaññasutta is the ancient literary source which gives the embryonic form of the notion of Panspermatism. It emphatically states that life came from a place where there was light or from a luminous world.
In 1981, Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe re-kindled the theory of Panspermia and explained that life could be diffused through the universe by means of germs carried by meteorites. As one scientific source explains, "Panspermia refers to the notion of the 'seeds' of life being dispersed across the universe." The idea that life could be transported through space has gained increasing scientific attention, particularly with evidence of the exchange of material between planets.
4.2 The Scientific Basis of Panspermia
The panspermia theory has been a subject of scientific inquiry for over a century. As one source notes, "Panspermia was first proposed in its modern form by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1879." The theory suggests that life may have originated elsewhere in the universe and was transported to Earth through various mechanisms.
The Aggaññasutta's account of life arriving from a luminous world represents an early formulation of this idea. As one scholar notes, "The Aggaññasutta emphatically states that life came from a place where there was light or from a luminous world."
4.3 The Luminous World
Here, the special word - "Ābhassarasaṃvattanika" or "Ābhassarakāya" should be examined very carefully. In Sinhala translation it is given as the Brahmaloka.
The Sanskrit-English Dictionary gives the meaning for the term, "ābhāsvara" as shining, bright, and a name of a class of deities. The Pali-English Dictionary explains the term ābhassara thus: shining, brilliant, radiant, and a name of a class of gods in the Brahma heavens or the "Radiant Gods", usually referred to as the representatives of supreme love.
A more precise and accurate translation would be, "luminous world" or a world where there is light. This suggests the relationship between life and light. The beings explained here, are a kind of heavenly beings with delicate and subtle bodies. Although the Sinhala translation and English translation state that they are human beings, the original word of the sutta is 'sattā" and not the word "manussā" to suggest humans.
5. Darkness and Water
5.1 The Primordial State
According to the sutta, at that time, all had become one world of water, dark and of darkness that makes blind (andhakāro andhakāratimisa).
It is interesting to note that in the Nāsadīyasūkta of the Ṛgveda and the Bible also speaks of water and darkness in the beginning. The Nāsadīyasūkta says, "At first there was only darkness wrapped in darkness. All this was unlimited water."
The Bible explains, "In the beginning God created heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, 'Let there be light: and there was light'."
The similarity between the Aggaññasutta and other ancient cosmogonic narratives suggests a shared cultural heritage of ideas about the origins of the universe. The motif of primordial waters and darkness appears in many ancient creation myths, reflecting a common human attempt to understand the origins of existence.
6. Appearance of the Savoury Earth (Rasāpaṭhavi)
6.1 The Emergence of the Earth
At that time, no moon nor sun appeared, no stars were seen, no constellations, neither was night manifest nor day, neither months nor half-months, neither years nor seasons, neither female nor male. Beings were reckoned just as beings only. This place emphatically says that they are not human beings (manussā), but beings (sattā) only. And they had very subtle bodies.
According to the sutta, to those beings, after a long time, earth with its savour was spread out in the waters. Even as a scum forms on the surface of boiled milky rice that is cooling, in this way, the earth appeared. It became endowed with colour, with good smell, and with taste. Then some being of greedy disposition, tasted the savoury earth with his finger, and craving entered into him.
It is to be noted here that the first organ used by those beings was the tongue, and at first "taṇhā" or craving enslaved them. Buddhism considers that 'taṇhā" is a basic unwholesome root of the mind. Other beings also used to imitate and began to feast on the savoury earth. Because of the consumption of savoury earth, the self-luminance of those beings faded away. As their self-luminance faded away, the moon and sun became manifest. There upon star-shapes and constellations became manifest, months too and half-months, the seasons and the years.
6.2 The Loss of Self-Luminance
The loss of self-luminance represents a significant moment in the evolutionary narrative. As the beings consumed material food, they lost their original subtle form and became more solid. The appearance of the sun and moon coincides with the loss of self-luminance, suggesting a transition from a state of self-sufficiency to dependence on external sources of light and energy.
7. Appearance of the Outgrowths / Mushroom (Bhūmipappaṭaka)
7.1 The Evolution of Food Sources
Now those beings feasting on the savoury earth, feeding on it, nourished by it, continued thus for a long time. Then their bodies become solid, and did variety in their comeliness become manifest. Some beings were well favoured, some were ill-favored. The well-favored ones despised them that were ill-favoured, thinking, we are more comely than they; they are worse favoured than us. And while they through pride in their beauty thus became vain and conceited, the savoury earth disappeared. Then outgrowths (bhūmipappaṭaka) appeared in the soil. The manner of rising up there of was as the springing up of the mushroom, it had colour, odor and taste. Then those beings began to feast on these outgrowths of the soil and continued for a long time and the difference in their comeliness more manifest, some becoming well favored, some ill-favored. After long while, the outgrowths (bhūmipappaṭaka) of the soil disappeared.
7.2 The Emergence of Social Distinctions
The emergence of distinctions in comeliness and the accompanying pride represents the origin of social distinctions based on appearance. The disappearance of the savoury earth due to the beings' vanity suggests a moral causation for environmental change, reflecting the Buddhist principle that moral actions have consequences.
8. Appearance of the Creeping Plants (Badālatā)
8.1 The Further Evolution of Vegetation
After disappearance of the outgrowths, then the creeping plants (badālatā) appeared. And the manner of the growth thereof was as that of the bamboo, and they had colour, good smell and taste. Then those beings began to feast on the creepers and continued so for a long time. Then their bodies waxed more solid, and the divergence in their comeliness increased. After long while, the Creeping Plants (Badālatā) of the soil also disappeared.
The progression from savoury earth to outgrowths to creeping plants represents an evolutionary sequence from simpler to more complex forms of vegetation. This progression parallels the scientific understanding of biological evolution from simpler to more complex life forms.
9. Appearance of the Rice (Akatthapākasāli)
9.1 The Emergence of Cultivated Rice
Then, when the creeper had vanished for those beings, rice appeared ripening in open spaces, no powder had it and no husk, pure, fragrant and clean grained. Then those beings feasting on this rice in the clearings, feeding on it, nourished by it, so continued for a long time.
The appearance of rice represents a significant development in the evolutionary narrative. The rice that appears is described as ripening in open spaces, without powder or husk, pure, fragrant, and clean grained. This description suggests an ideal form of food that does not require cultivation or processing.
10. Appearance of Distinctive Features of Males and Females
10.1 The Emergence of Gender
Then, the bodies of those beings become even more solid, and the divergence in their comeliness more pronounced. In the female appeared the distinctive features of the female, in the male those of the male. Buddhaghosa, the great commentator explains that these distinctive features are appeared in accordance with their previous births.
The appearance of gender distinctions represents a significant stage in the evolution of human beings. The commentator's explanation that these features appeared in accordance with previous births reflects the Buddhist principle of karma and rebirth.
10.2 The Origin of Sexual Behavior
In males and females, contemplating over much the one the other, passion arose and burning entered their body, and they followed their lusts. Those beings that at that time followed their lusts were not allowed to enter village or town either for a whole month or even for two months. Since the lustful behaviour was reckoned immoral and also blamed for their immorality, they set to work to make huts, to conceal that immoral behavior.
The lustful behaviour was reckoned immoral at that time. That which was reckoned immoral at that time, is now reckoned to be moral. (Adhammasammataṃ khopana Vāseṭṭha, yaṃ tena samayena hoti, tadetarahi dhammasammataṃ). This statement of the sutta explicitly suggests the changing nature of moral and immoral acceptances of human society.
10.3 The Social Construction of Morality
The Aggaññasutta's statement that what was once considered immoral is now considered moral reflects a recognition of the social construction of morality. As one scholar notes, "The sutta suggests that moral standards are not absolute but are shaped by social conventions and historical contexts."
11. Lazy Dispositions, Rice-gathering and Imitation
11.1 The Origin of Hoarding
Beings of lazy dispositions were to fetch enough rice for supper and breakfast together. Then, some beings fetched rice for two days at once, and started to store up rice enough for four, and then for eight days. Now, from the time that those beings began to feed on hoarded rice, powder enveloped the clean grain, and the reaped or cut stems did not grow again; a break became manifest; the rice stubble stood in clumps.
This shows that lazy dispositions and storing up (sannidhikāra) paved the way for evil customs. Here, the significant point is the imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ) of social actions. It is the undercurrent force of any given society.
11.2 The Principle of Imitation
The principle of imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ) is fundamental to understanding the development of human society. As one scholar observes, "Imitation is the undercurrent force of any given society." The Aggaññasutta recognizes that social behaviors spread through imitation, leading to the development of customs and institutions.
12. Setting of Boundaries to Rice-fields
12.1 The Origin of Private Property
Then they decided to divide off the rice fields and set boundaries round them. (sāliṃ vibhajimsu, mariyādaṃ thapemsu).
Now some beings of greedy disposition, watching over his own plot, stole another plot and made use of it. Others advised him not to do such a thing again. Since he stole for the third time, they took him and admonished him. Some punished him. With such a beginning stealing appeared, and censure and lying and punishment became known. Then they decided to select a certain being, who should be wrathful when indignation is right, who should censure that which should rightly be censured and should banish him who deserves to be banished.
The division of rice fields and the establishment of boundaries represent the origin of private property. The emergence of stealing and punishment marks the beginning of legal and social institutions.
13. Mahāsammata or the Great Elect
13.1 The Election of the First King
The Mahāsammata means chosen by the whole people. (Mahājanasammato ti kho Vāseṭṭha mahā-sammato…). He was to punish those who did wrong actions and he was contributed a proportion of rice (income of people). This was the first elected political leader to control the earth and safeguard the peaceful environment.
The concept of the Mahāsammata represents an early formulation of democratic political theory. As one scholar notes, "The Aggaññasutta presents one of the earliest formulations of the social contract theory, with the king being chosen by the people to maintain order."
13.2 The Origin of Social Classes
The sutta gives certain definitions to social classes: Lords of the fields is what is meant by Khattiya; He charms (enjoys) the others by the Dhamma or righteousness is what is meant by Rājā; some of those beings who put away evil and immoral customs is what is meant by Brahmins. Some good beings, having made unto themselves leaf huts in the forest region, meditate therein. They meditate is what is meant by the brooding one (Jhāyakā). Those who did not practice meditation and made books were considered Ajjhāyakā (repeaters). There were some others of those beings who, adopting the married state, set on foot various trades is the meaning of Vessā (trades folk). The beings those that live on hunting is what is meant by Suddā (the lowest grade of folk).
The sutta's classification of social classes is based on function rather than birth, reflecting the Buddhist rejection of caste-based hierarchy. As one scholar observes, "The Aggaññasutta presents a functional rather than hereditary basis for social classification."
14. Theories Presented in the Aggaññasutta
14.1 The Various Theories
This sutta is scientifically very significant since it offers many theories pertaining to life and society on earth. The sutta should be examined with critical viewpoint for it is taught in a narrative style. The various theories given in the sutta may be mentioned thus:
I. The theory of the Evolution of Universe
II. The Origin and Evolution of the Earth
III. Evolution of vegetation
IV. Evolution of life
V. Origin of the State and Political grades
VI. Origin of Social grades
VII. Equality of human race
VIII. Democratic concept of the Elected One
14.2 Fundamental Buddhist Religious Theories
Fundamental Buddhist religious theories explained in the Sutta are:
- Change (aniccaṃ), and
- Imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ)
14.3 The Significance of the Theories
The Aggaññasutta's theories of evolution anticipate many ideas that would later emerge in Western science. The theory of the evolution of the universe, the origin and evolution of the earth, and the evolution of life all find parallels in modern scientific understanding. The concept of the Mahāsammata represents an early formulation of democratic political theory.
The sutta's emphasis on change (aniccaṃ) and imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ) reflects the Buddhist understanding of the dynamic and interdependent nature of reality. As one scholar notes, "The Aggaññasutta presents a vision of reality that is constantly changing and evolving, driven by the principles of impermanence and interdependence."
15. Conclusion
The Aggaññasutta presents a remarkable narrative of cosmic evolution, the origin of life, and the development of human society that bears striking parallels to modern scientific theories. The sutta describes a cyclical universe that passes away and re-evolves, with beings from a luminous world coming to earth, consistent with the panspermia theory that life may have originated elsewhere in the universe.
The evolutionary progression of food sources from savoury earth to outgrowths, creeping plants, and finally rice parallels the biological evolution of species from simple to complex forms. The appearance of gender distinctions and the origin of social institutions reflect an understanding of the development of human society and culture.
The concept of the Mahāsammata or the Great Elect represents an early formulation of democratic political theory, with the first political leader being chosen by the people to maintain order. The sutta's classification of social classes is based on function rather than birth, reflecting the Buddhist rejection of caste-based hierarchy.
The fundamental Buddhist principles of change (aniccaṃ) and imitation (diṭṭhānugatiṃ) provide the philosophical framework for understanding both cosmological and social evolution. The Aggaññasutta, while expressed in mythological and narrative language, contains profound insights that resonate with modern scientific understanding of cosmic and biological evolution.
In conclusion, the Aggaññasutta offers a comprehensive and coherent account of the evolution of the universe, life, and human society. Its teachings, while rooted in the Buddhist tradition, anticipate many ideas that would later emerge in Western science, demonstrating the enduring relevance of the Buddha's vision of reality.
16. Bibliography
Primary Sources
Aggaññasutta. Dīgha Nikāya 27.
Brahmajālasutta. Dīgha Nikāya.
Nāsadīyasūkta. Ṛgveda.
Secondary Sources
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.
Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012.
Collins, Steven. "The Discourse on What is Primary (Aggañña Sutta)." Journal of Indian Philosophy 21, no. 4 (1993): 301-393.
Gombrich, Richard. How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996.
Law, B.C. A History of Pali Literature. Vārānasi: Indological Book House, 1983.
Malalasekera, G.P. The Pali Literature of Ceylon. Colombo: Buddhist Publication Society, 2003.
Pande, G.C. Studies in the Origins of Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995.
Tandon, V. and Maitra, G. "Darwin's theory of evolution: Survival of nature's fit!" In Nature at Work: Ongoing Saga of Evolution, edited by V.P. Sharma. New Delhi: Springer, 2010.
Walshe, Maurice. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995.
"Buddhist Cosmology." Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology.
"Panspermia." Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia.
No comments:
Post a Comment