CHAPTER TWO
EARLY HISTORY OF MORAL EDUCATION
Under the theme of early history of moral education, this chapter discusses about the substantial information regarding the moral education referring with different periods, anthropologists, [1]archeologists, [2]scholars and religious interpretations. Those evidence help to figure out differences between earlier and modern concepts of moral education with their aims and objectives of teachings and learning. Considering those historical facts on moral education, it would indicate which principles has dropped or has grasped from history for the contemporary moral education. Furthermore, it will be compared and contrasted the similarities and differences of those principles of moral education at those periods. It studied different periods and figure out which principle is the most appropriate to apply for moral development in modern education scheme. According to that, this chapter discusses under two major topic as follows:
1. Vedic Literature on Moral Education
2. Buddhist Attitude to the Origin of Moral Education with especial reference to the Aggaññasutta
Under these sub-topics, the facts on the concept of morality in different periods have examined to figure the most appropriate principles to apply in modern education scheme to the moral development.
2.1. Vedic Literature on Moral Education
The Vedic Age or the Vedic period refers to that times in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The society that emerged during that time is known as the Vedic period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. According to Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia, estimates the two Vedic Era as follows:
1. Early Vedic Period (ca. 1500–1100 BCE)
2. Later Vedic period (1100–500 BCE)
Linguistically, the texts belonging to the Hindu Vedic Civilization can be classified into five chronological branches. Also by Witzel, Michael in text of “Tracing the Vedic dialects”, the Vedic texts have classified in five chronological strata.
1. Ṛigveda
2. Mantra language texts
3. Saṃhitā prose texts
4. Brāhmaṇā prose texts
5. Sūtra language texts[3]
Āryans were known as the forefathers of Vedic Period. According to the Encyclopedia of Britannica, Āryan name originally given to a people who were said to speak an archaic Indo-European language and who were thought to have settled in prehistoric times in ancient Iran and the northern Indian subcontinent.[4] When it is about derivation of the term “āryans” ; Apte Sanskrit-English Dictionary explains the derivation of word “îrya” with the prefix, Œ + √r = îrya. It furthermore shows the meaning of term “îrya” as excellent, respectable, attached and as dear.[5]
Āryans migrated to India from Europe and there are two main groups of them as Indu- Iranians and Indu - Europeans. It is explained by D.D. Kosambi in his book “The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline” as follow:
“The immediate foreign Aryan group related to India was in Persia. The Persians and Medes had an Aryan speech close to Sanskrit. About 1400 B.C. Mitannian records show that people worshipping Indo-Aryan gods in an Aryan language were settled near Lake Urmiyeh in Iran. The same gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra, etc., were worshipped by Persians till Zoroaster swept them away in the late sixth century B.C. Only the Indo-Aryan god of fire (Agni) remained in common worship for both. The Sanskrit word deva for 'god' became the Iranian term for 'demon’”.[6]
In addition, according to Boghaz-Koui inscription[7] (14th BC) Mitani kings ruled Central Asia. They worshipped several gods[8] such as Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nastya; same gods were worshiped by Indu -Iranians in their Iranian residences. Later Indu – Iranians migrated to India through Hindukush Mountain[9]. However, Ṛigvedamentions that above gods worshipped by îryans after their Indian establishments. Therefore it confirms that the îryanswere one of Indo-Iranian tribes and they started to follow those gods in their Central Asian residence too. With all these facts it proves that Āryans were polytheists when they arrived to India.
The Ṛigvedic hymns praise on thirty three gods. There we can see that, except four gods who they worshiped previously, they began to worship another twenty nine gods after thy migrated to India. With all these alternations, Vedic period developed under three sections.
1. The period of four Vedas ( Ṛig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sāman-Veda and Atarva-Veda)
2. The period of the Brahmanas, including older îraṇyakas & Upaniśads
3. The period of Sūtras[10]
“Veda” literary means “Knowledge”. It derived from the root √vid. SŒyana, one of Vedic commentator interpreted the word “Veda” as below.
“The truth which is unable to understand evidently or inferentially could be understood by the Veda. That is why call the name ‘Veda”[11]
The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known as the Vedic education system. In other words, the ancient system of education was based on the Vedas therefore it was given the name of Vedic educational system. Moral education was a perennial aim of Vedic education. Vedic literature ideals of education has tendency to change the minds of people and their character. It has tendency to convert the bad into good. Because the ultimate aim of Vedic literature education was development of personality and character.
Observing the Vedic literature ideals on educational system it could be said that the unique characteristics such as education was confined to upper castes.[12] At this period, the life of a person has divided into four stages also known as the four Āśramas they are: Brahmacharya (student), Grhastha (householder), Vānaprastha (retired) and Sanvāsa (renunciation).[13] Brahmacharya (student) is the time aside for learning and acquiring skills. During the Vedic period, most the upper castes, which were Brahmins and Kshatriyas, have their education in a unique system called ‘Gurukulas.’[14]
With contributing not only to the ancient Indian but also to the world, the Vedic literature ideals of education system donated extra ordinary services to the field of moral education. Observing the main features of Vedic literature ideal of moral education, the activities of teaching is considered as a holy duty. It was known as “Vidyādāna” or in other term gift in the cause of education. On the occasion of religious feats, students and teachers were invited and donations were given liberally.
Examining the significant Vedic literature ideals of objectives, curriculum, methods of instruction, duration of education, categories of students, role of teacher, mother and students, it shows the early history of an ancient Indian moral education field.
Objectives of moral education in Vedic period | The major aims of moral education in Vedic period are, 1. To promote understanding of moral values of life. 2. To provide religious environment of attending emancipation under the guidance of Guru 3. To provide pupils with character and to lead disciplined and spiritual life. 4. To promote happiness and righteousness of individuals. 5. Preserving and Transmitting Culture |
Curriculum | Curriculum was based on two aspects such as vocational studies and religious education. Certain subjects included in the curriculum were medicine, philosophy, Science, History, Astrology, Art and Archery.[15] 1. Vedic Literature: I. Ṛig-Veda II. Yajurveda III. Sāma-Veda IV. Atharvaveda 2. Post Vedic Literature: I. Vedāṅga II. Pariśiṣṭa III. Upaveda |
Methods of Instruction | The important methods of learning are: 1. Listening (Śravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher. 2. Deliberation (Manana or Chintan is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.) 3. Meditation (Nidhidhyarāma) represents the highest stage.) |
Duration of Education | In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education up to the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life. Students were divided into three categories: 1. Those obtaining education up to the age of 24-Vasu. 2. Those obtaining education up to the age of 36-Rudra. 3. Those obtaining education up to the age of 48-Āditya. |
Role of Teacher | The role of teacher at Vedic period was so especially because they not merely have responsibilities of imparting knowledge about religion but also molding the character and personality of pupils. The role of Ācarya or teacher was an affectionate father, an effective teacher and a person with high moral and spiritual qualities. He maintained the discipline by the influences of his personality. |
Role of Mother | A mother should impart education to her children so as to broaden their horizon. At this stage good manners are to be taught so that the children behave properly with the elders and in assemblies. |
Role of Student | The role of students was known as Brahamacārin who dedicate his life for the sake of gaining knowledge. With requiring the qualities of student at the period of Upanishads, students had to become calm, patient, self-restrained and self-denying. |
Table 02
Early history of the ancient Indian moral education field
In Vedic literature ideals, moral education was considered as a main key to become cultured. It was fully capable of development of physical and intellectual and character development.
In Summary, the Vedic period is marked with moral education. Hermits, Gurukulas, Charns, and ṛṣikulas were centers of imparting moral education, during the Vedic period. Priests, seers, sages and religious teachers imparted moral value education. Teachers’ duties and responsibilities were to promote moral awareness of pupils and to train them how to lead the disciplined and spiritual life. The ideal of “First deserve and then desire”, was effective means, teachers themselves were living exemplary model of the values, what they wanted to desire to develop among their students. Students enjoyed academic freedom and autonomy, while being taught and trained in morality, disciplined life, mental growth and spiritual knowledge.
With above discussion my opinion is, Vedic ideals on moral education are in an appreciative level. It concerns not only on systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct, but also moral principles which can apply to develop of their entire life spam.
2.2. Buddhist Concept on the Origin of Moral Education with especial reference to the Aggaññasutta
The Aggaññasutta is the 27th Sutta of the Dīghanikāya and this sutta was preached by the Buddha for two Brahamins[16], Bhāradvāja and Vāsettha. They have left their home and become monks because they were insulted and maligned by their people. By explaining that caste cannot be compared to the achievement of moral practice and Dhamma, Buddha told them, anyone from the four castes can be a monk and reach the state of Arahant.[17]
In the third part of this sutta, Buddha explained about the origin of castes, their titles, and their order in the social system which was still rigidly effective in Buddha's time. In the sutta, it is further described about origin and development of morality. The sutta shows that, how beings at this stage are ethereal but, motivated by greed, consume matter and gradually acquire denser bodies. As a result of occurring sexual differentiation, procreation and social organization caste lines came into exist.
In detail, it says that due to greed and wickedness of human beings, they started to steal others Goods. It details as follows,
“As results of evil and greed were aroused, people started to steal other’s crops which were separated into plots and divided lands each cluster of rice fief. Culprits were been warned at the beginning to promise that he would never repeat it again but when it was repeated several times, people began punishing him.” [18]
Due to the immoral behavior of people bestowed upon particular titles such as “Mahā Sammata” or the people’s choice, ‘Khattiyā’ the Lord of the Rice Field, and the title of ‘Rājā’ which means 'Who gladdens people with Dhamma or truth. [19]
In summary, the Aggaññasutta explains that, from the beginning people were greedy and wickedness therefore stealing and unethical activities were depicted from them, as a result of that requirement occurs to the moral development and moral education. Therefore the development of morality was major issues at that period and elected a person who is morally developed in the society. They named him as Mahā Sammata. In the Aggaññasutta, it further explains the origin and development of world, social order and castes, as well as the Buddhist concept on origin and development of moral education[20].
By observing four major ideals on moral education, except Buddhist ideals, all others ideals are originated on depending with supernatural powers or divine command. Therefore, other approaches concern to develop morality with based on divine command but Buddhist teachings figure out the cause of immorality to the development of morality. In other approaches on morality, it is a command of God or gods and people cannot have doubt. In the Kālāmasutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya shows Buddhist teachings on freedom of thinking. It further mentioned that until you yourself realize what is moral and immoral, you may have doubts and question. As it mentioned in the sutta,
“when you know for yourselves that, "These qualities are unskillful; these qualities are blameworthy; these qualities are criticized by the wise; these qualities, when adopted & carried out, lead to harm & to suffering" — then you should abandon them.' Thus was it said?” [21]
Buddha also emphasized that the social structure is formed voluntarily, based on righteousness and necessity, not based on divine command as some theories stated. In the text Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way, mentioned as follows.
“The Monarchy is also formed voluntarily, and the people elect the most righteous and capable person, which implied the Democracy concept. The Monarch accepts a 'share of rice' as his reward to rectify the social order, which is the origin of voluntary reward which evolves into the taxation concept. However, the Buddha states that the Monarch is regarded worthy not because of his divine right but due to his righteousness in deeds.”[22]
Comparing to the rest of ideals on morality, Buddhist concepts of moral development in education seems more advance. It is because of all others approaches to moral development based on the divine command or requirements of society but Buddhist ideals on moral development are not based on Divine Command. One of the fundamental Buddhist principles of Buddhism is the Kamma theory. The Buddha’s four noble truths are other guiding principles of moral thought and action, particularly as expressed in the four noble truths, the Noble Eight-fold Path. The Law of Dependent Origination is one of the most important teachings of the Buddha, and it is also very profound. The Buddha has often expressed his experience of enlightenment in one of two ways, either in terms of having understood the Four Noble Truths, or in terms of having understood the nature of the dependent origination. This principle can be given in a short formula of four lines:
“When this is, that is, when this arises, that arises, When this is not, that is not, this ceasing, that ceases”
With concluding the early history of moral education, the aims and objectives of education in ancient history was not only an effort of the senior people to transfer their knowledge to the younger members of society but also cultivate their moral values such as honesty, stewardship, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, justice, equality, and respect through their religious teachings.
Vedic ideal on moral education shows the significant of progressive level of moral development because it much concern on role and duties of teacher (Guru) to moral development and Hermits, Gurukulas, Charns, and ṛṣikulas were centers of imparting moral education as well as it concern the divine command.
Finally, with giving reference for origin and development of moral education, the Aggaññasutta provides extra-ordinary facts on historical background of origin and development on moral education. By giving examples it says that requirements of moral education arose due to greed and wickedness of human beings. Buddhist concept of origin and development of moral education seems to be outstanding. Because While rest of the concepts of principles on moral education figure out the obstacles and ways of overcome from immoral behaviors, Buddhist teachings especially on principle of Dependent Origination, figure out the root of the problems. Because it shows not only effects and principles but also cause for immoral behavior and their results.
Comparing to the both earlier and modern ideals on moral education, in the early education on morality were mostly based on some supernatural beings or powers. But in later period, the theories and stages on moral education are depicted, which means in later period the ideals on moral education were more examined. Lawrence Kohlberg shows three stages of moral development as follows;
1. Pre-conventional Level
2. Conventional Level
3. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level [23]
Writer has shown three different levels of moral development. According to him, capacity of different judgment separates the level of moral development. In text “Moral Principles on Education” written by John Dewey mentions the techniques of establishment of morality in the school. By observing these facts, moral education in later periods was developed by adding more theories and principles.
After reviewing different principles on moral education in early history, it seems that Buddhist principles on morality is exceptional than other principles on morality. Because all other ideals on morality are based on supernatural or divine command. People are enjoined not to doubt the teachings of their own religion. According to the Buddha, religion should be left to one's own free choice. Religion is not a law, but a disciplinary code which should be followed with understanding. To Buddhists true religious principles are neither a divine law nor a human law, but a natural law.[24] Therefore, when comparing with other religious teachings, it could be (Buddhist principles) more appropriated and applicable to the moral development in education. With that approach, I selected Buddhist principles to continue my research to gain the best outcome.
[1] Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences.
[2] Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains. It is a subfield of anthropology, the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate and socialize with one another.
[4] https://safe1.britannica.com/registrations2/signup.do?partnerCode=100WGMP_CTA_30DAY1_C
(Accessed on 23.11.2015)
[5] http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/cgi-bin/dic-srch.cgi (Accessed on 03.05. 2016)
[6] http://vidyaonline.org/dl/cultddk.pdf (Accessed on 23.11.2015)
[7] An Inscription found at Carchemish (now destroyed)
[8] Ilāni mi-it-tra as-si-il, Ilāni u-rè-vana- as-si il-ilu-in-da-ra , Ilāni nā-sā at-ti iyā-an-nā Hussein, A. (2014). ZEYLANICA A Study of the Peoples and Languages of Sri Lanka . Colombo: Neptune Publications. asiffhussein.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Zeylanica-abridged.pdf (Accessed on 20.03.2016)
[9] Known in Ancient Greek as the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisadae, is an 800-kilometre-long mountain
range that stretches between central Afghanistan and northern Pakistan.
[10] Ariyaratne, Iromi. )2012)."Origin of Hinduism". Presentation.
[11] Pratyak·aöŒnumityŒvŒ - yastèpŒyana budhyate - etadvidanti vedena - yasmŒt vedasya vedatŒ - Ṛgveda-
bhdsya
[12] There are four major caste among them two caste are known as upper caste they are Brahmin and Kshatriya.
[13] Sharma, R.K. (1999). Indian Society, Institutions and Change, p. 28
[14]According to the Wikipedia, Gurukula is a type of residential school in India with pupils (Shishya) living near the guru, often in the same house.
[15] http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/6752/4/05_chapter%201.pdf
(Accessed on 08.03.2016)
[16]Brahmin is a caste (Varna) in Hinduism specializing as priests, teachers (ācharya) and protectors of sacred learning across generations.
[17]Arahant comes from the Pali word arahati meaning 'worthy' or 'noble' and is a title given to someone who has attained enlightenment as a result of listening to and practicing the teachings of a Buddha
[18] Atha kho, vāseṭṭha, aññataro satto lolajātiko sakaṃ bhāgaṃ parirakkhanto aññataraṃ bhāgaṃ adinnaṃ
ādiyitvā paribhuñji. Tamenaṃ aggahesuṃ, gahetvā etadavocuṃ – ‘pāpakaṃ vata, bho satta, karosi, yatra hi nāma sakaṃ bhāgaṃ parirakkhanto aññataraṃ bhāgaṃ adinnaṃ ādiyitvā paribhuñjasi. Māssu, bho satta, punapi evarūpamakāsī’ti.
Davids, T.W. Rhys, (Trans.) Dialogues of the Buddha. D. iii 80
[19] Mahājanasammatoti kho, vāseṭṭha, ‘mahāsammato, mahāsammato’ tveva paṭhamaṃ akkharaṃ
upanibbattaṃ. Khettānaṃ adhipatīti kho, vāseṭṭha, ‘khattiyo, khattiyo’ tveva dutiyaṃ akkharaṃ upanibbattaṃ. Dhammena pare rañjetīti kho, vāseṭṭha, ‘rājā, rājā’ tveva tatiyaṃ akkharaṃ upanibbattaṃ. Iti kho, vāseṭṭha, evametassa khattiyamaṇḍalassa porāṇena aggaññena akkharena abhinibbatti ahosi tesaṃyeva sattānaṃ, anaññesaṃ. Sadisānaṃyeva, no asadisānaṃ. Dhammeneva, no adhammena. Dhammo hi, vāseṭṭha, seṭṭho janetasmiṃ diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañca. Ibid.
[20] See Appendix A
[21] Yadā tumhe kālāmā attanāva jāneyyātha – ‘ime dhammā akusalā, ime dhammā sāvajjā, ime dhammā
viññugarahitā, ime dhammā samattā samādinnā ahitāya dukkhāya saṃvattantīti, atha tumhe, kālāmā, pajaheyyāthā’ti, iti yaṃ taṃ vuttaṃ, idametaṃ paṭicca vuttaṃ. A. i 188
[22] Kalupahana, David J. (1991). Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. p. 61
[23]http://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/Stages%20of%20Moral%20Development%20According%20to%20Kohl
berg.pdf (Accessed on 28.02.2015)
[24] Dhammananda, Ven. K. , What Buddhist Believe, pp. 369-370
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