Introduction

Pāli Tripitaka

Collection of Tripiṭaka (Saṃgāyanā)

The Theravāda Buddhist teachings have been preserved in the Pali Tripitaka. The literary meaning of Pali ‘tipika; Sanskrit ‘tripitaka’ is three baskets. That means all of the Buddha’s teachings have been divided in to three parts or Pitakas. The first one is known as the Suttanta Pitaka and it contains the Discourses delivered by the Buddha in various places. The second collection is called the Vinaya Pitaka and it contains all the disciplinary rules and regulations laid down for Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis who have been admitted into the order. The third basket is called the Abhidhamma Pitaka and comprises the Buddha's higher teaching or special teaching on his psycho-ethical philosophy. It is clear that whenever The Buddha preached dhamma for his ordained disciples and lay disciples and prescribed monastic rules for monks and nuns for forty –five years, those of his clever and learned monks immediately kept word for word in their memory. Although there is no Buddha left us written records of the sermons, but his disciples, the exact words of the Buddha preserved and were in due course transmitted orally from master to student. K.R. Norman Says that according to the Theravāda oral tradition Pāli canon was written down in the first century B.C. oral recitation of Pāli texts continued and still continues to this day.[1] Most of the monks who had heard the direct preaching of the Buddha were Arahants. They are ‘pure ones’ free from delusion and passion and therefore they were clever enough to keep in mind perfectly the original word of the Buddha.

The Pāli Tripiţaka known as the doctrine of Elders (theravāda). There are hundreds of discourses recited by the bhikkhus at the first Buddhist council. After that there were several councils because of various controversial ideas about the Buddha’s teachings but according to Pāli tradition or Canonical and non canonical Pāli literature, three Buddhist councils were held. The first Buddhist council was held immediately after three months of Buddha’s parinirvāna. All of these Buddhist councils or collective recitations by the Bhikkus are known as Dhamma sangitis.[2] According to the 11^th chapter of Cullavaggapāli of Vinayapiţaka (Pañcasatikakkhanda) a detailed account of this historical incident can be found. Other different accounts can be found in Dīpavamsa and Mahāvamsa chronicles in Sri Lanka about this historical event. According to the records; the first council was held after three months of the Buddha’s demise in the rainy season under the patronage of King Ajātasatthu in sattapaņņi cave at Vebhāra Mountain in Rajagaha. The remarkable incident for the first council is Subhadda’s evil words. Ven.Mahakassapa was deeply concerned about that. The monk Subhadda was a former barber and ordained in his old age. Many of the bhikkus deeply grieved and lamented after passing away of the Buddha. According to the Mahāparinibbānasutta in the Digha-nikaya, a monk named Subhadda came forward when he saw his fellow monks weeping and wailing after the nirvdna of the Buddha and admonished them saying, " Enough, sirs! Weep not, nor lament. We are well rid of the great samana. We used to be annoyed by being told, 'This beseems you, and this beseems you not.' But now we shall be able to do what we like, and what we do not like, that we shall not do."[3] “ala×, āvuso, mā socittha; mā paridevittha, Sumuttā maya× tena mahāsamanena upaddutā ca maya× homa– ida× vo kappati, ida× vo na kappatīti. Idāni pana maya× ya× icchissāma ta× karissāma, ya× na icchissāma na ta× karissāmā’ti” [4] As it is mentioned above the events after this episode are taken up in Chapter 11 of the Cullavagga, where it is stated that the venerable Kassapa, alarmed by such a display of irreverence and laxity, convened a council to make an authentic collection of the master's precepts. “Atha khvāha×, āvuso, te bhikkhu etadavoca×–ala×, āvuso, mā socittha; mā paridevittha. Nanveta×, āvuso, Bhagavatā paÊikacceva akkhāta×– sabbeheva piyehi manāpehi nānābhāvo vinābhāvo abbathabhāvo. Ta× kutettha āvuso labbhā, ya× ta× jāta× bhuta× sa×khata× palokadhamma×, ta× vata mā palujjiti– neta× Êāna× vijjati’ti. “Tena kho panasamayena āvuso, Subhaddo nāma vuddhapabbajito tassa× parisāya× nisinno hoti, Atha kho, āvuso, Subhaddo vuddhapabbajito te bhikkhu etadavoca………….. Handa maya×, āvuso, dhammañca vinayañca sangāyāma”[5] According to the Pali traditions, it is very clear that Subhadda is not only one person who had such kind of thoughts because there were many others who felt that the teachings of the Buddha would disappear immediately after his emancipation like Nigaņţhanātaputta’s order. Even in the Buddha’s time there were several disagreements among the monks on Dhamma. There was a debate among Dhammadhara and Vinayadhara monks in Vesali. Devadatta thera also tried several time to divide the community. Mahākassapa thera thought there will be various arguments among monks and they will misinterpret the doctrine in future. He had the experience what happened to Jainism after his death. So he wanted to preserve the Buddha’s teaching in its pure form. In addition the Mahākassapa thera thought it should be collected all the teachings scattered in everywhere because most of the prominent monks decided to pass away after the Buddha’s demise and it would seriously affect to the community. In ancient India there were no written records. Continuous recitation was only one way to retain and save the records. According to Vedic records, in the early Vedic times, in the case of absence of written records, India has long been used in this way.

Ven. Mahakassappa presiding, five hundred fully enlightened arahant monks gathered in the assembly and Ānanda and Upāli took an important part there. It is accepted that the first Buddhist council only settled Dhamma and Vinaya and there is no evidence about Abhidhamma formed a part of the canon adopted in the first council or recited whole the tripiţaka. There is a disagreement about the Third Piṭaka or Abhidhammapiṭaka. Accordingto Warder, Theravāda and Mahāsanghika versions did not mention the recitation of Abhidhamma but Sarvastavadin and Dhammaguptaka schools said that Ananda recited the Abhidhamma in the first council. There is no doubt about recitation of The Mātikas or out lines of the Abhidhamma. According to Atthasālini the commentary of Dhammasanganippakaraṇa, The Buddha preached Abhidhamma to his mother in the heaven of Tāvatiṃsa and after that taught them to Ven.Sāriputta when his daily return to earth for meal. Thus only two piṭakas recited in the first council with the Abhidhamma Mātikās recited as a Part of Suttapiṭaka and included into Khuddhakanikāya.[6]

When all the teachings were recited by Upāli and Ānanda, then chanted all of the monks gathered in the assembly by all together. The recitation was then judged and formally approved. After that Vinaya was handed over to Venerable Upāli and his students, Dhamma was subdivided into five volumes. Dīghanikāya, Majjhimanikāya, Sanyuttanikāya,Ańguttaranikāya and Khuddhakanikāya. The responsibility of Dīghanikāya was given to Venerable Ānanda and his students. The followers of Venerable Sāriputta were entrusted with Majjhimanikāya. Samyuttanikāya handed over to Venerable Mahākassapa thera and Anuruddha thera and his followers were responsible with Ańguttanikāya. All the theras were responsible for the Khuddhakanikāya.[7] Since the first council convened, all the discourses have always been recited word for word by the Bhikkhus.

The second Buddhist council was held at Visali under the patronage of king Kālāsoka after hundred years of the Buddha’s demise. It is recorded in Cullavaggapāli that this council was held in order to settle ten serious dispute points (dasa akepa vastu)[8] which Monks of vajji country were practicing. Ven. Kākaṇḍaputta yasa declared that the Vajji monks are wrong doers and their practices are illegal and extremely immoral. According to the Cullavaggapāli the ten indulgences can be explained as follows.

Elder monk Yasa was seriously against these unlawful practices. Invited monks in Eastern and Western countries assemble to hold a council to be decided whether those ten points are unlawful or not and ensure the preservation of the Vinaya.

In order to settle the matter Venerable Revata advised that a council should be called at Vālukārāma in Visāli with himself asking questions about the ten offences of the most elder monks of the day. Venerable Sabbakāmi gave his opinion that the questions to hear by a committee of eight monks and its validity should be decided by their vote. Those eight Elder monks are Sabbakāmi,Sālha,Khujjusobhita, Vasabhagāmika from the Eastern country and other four monks from the West, Venenerable Revata, Sambhūta-Sānavāsi,Yasa and Sumana. Sabbakāmi thera was the president of the assembly. Venerable Revata asked the questions on ten points one by one and Sabbakāmi answered all the questions and declared as unlawful. Then eight monks of the committee debated each other and judged ten points are unlawful according to the tradition. Afterwards seven hundred monks recited Dhamma and Vinaya together and it was known as sattasati because seven hundred monks participated for that council. After the recital, all the monks of the assembly came to a unanimous verdict that practices of vajjians are unlawful.

The Vajjian monks refused accept the decision of council and they held another council which was ten thousand monks participated.[9] It was called as ‘mahāsangīti’ (great council). The commentator Venerable Buddhaghosa mentions in Samantapāsādika vinaya commentary that after the final judgement the seven hundred bhikkhus participated in the council of the Vinaya and the Dhamma and drew up a new edition resulting in the Piṭakas, Nikāyas, Ańgas and Dharmaskandhas. [10]

The third council was held at Ashokārāma in Pāṭaliputra under the patronage of King Ashoka. This council was held for the purpose of dispelling the monks who had the heretical views. Bareau tends to see the council as the one which separated the Sarvastivādins and Vibhajyavādins from the Sthavira proper.[11] As Kern observes, the Third Council was not a general Council but a party meeting of the Sthaviravādins or Vibhajjavādins.[12]Ven. Moggaliputtatissa thera was president at the assembly and one thousand monks were participated. The assembly was end concluding the Buddha was a Vibhajjavādin and expelling sixty thousand sectarians from the order. The most important outcome of the convocation was Venerable Moggaliputtatissa restored the pure Buddhism and he wrote Katāvatthuppakaraṇa (point of controversy) by completing Abhidhammapiṭaka. It is the fifth book of seven treaties of Abhidhamma piṭaka. The assembly took nine months to rehearse the Teaching of the Buddha after which the Pāli Tipiṭaka was compiled and closed.

We can find the information about the third Buddhist council only from the Pāli sources especially in Mahāvaṃsa chapter VII, Dīpavaṃsa chapter V, Mahābodhivaṃsa, and Samantapāsādikā vinaya commentary. According to Mahāvaṃsa the council was convened seventeenth year of King Asoka’s reign[13] and Dīpavaṃsa[14] cites that 236 B.C. as the date.

02. Organization and Structure of Pāli Tripitaka

As it is mentioned above, Pāli Tripiṭaka means three baskets .Tripiṭaka is the Sanskrit word. Basically The Buddha’s word is known as Dhamma. The doctrines preserved in the scriptures are called tripiṭaka. There are versions of tripiṭaka adopted by three schools in the world today. Those are Pāli tripiṭaka of Theravāda tradition, Chinese tripiṭaka of Mahāyāna tradition and and Tibetan tripiṭaka in Tibetan Language called Kagyur (translation of Sanskrit text and four great Tantras) and Tangyur (works of Indian and Tibetan scholars).

Here we pay attention only for the Tripiṭaka of Theravāda tradition. According to the Theravāda tradition Pāli tripiṭaka is the original sources and others are later compositions. According to Venerable Sayādaw U Thittila[15], the versions of the Pāli Canon existing in Theravada countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar,Thailand, Cambodia and Laos differ very slightly, with only a few minor grammatical forms and spellings. In substance and meaning and even the phrases used, they are in complete agreement. The Pāli Tipitaka contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of nibbana, the cessation of all suffering. According to A.K. Warder[16], although Mahāyāna claimed to have been founded by the Buddha himself, scholars’ consensus of the evidence is that Mahāyana teachings come from South India somewhere in Andhra Pradesh during the 1st century AD. Several of Mahāyāna leading teachers were born in South India, studied there and later went to the North to teach, one of them was Nāgarjuna. The idea that the sutras had been confined to the South was a convenient way for Mahayanists to explain to Buddhists in the North why it was that they had not heard these texts directly from their own teachers, without admitting that they were later invensions.

The three baskets are named: Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Piṭaka), which deals with the rules and regulations laid down by the Buddha for the monks and nuns; : Basket of Discourses (Sutta Piṭaka) which contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha in various places; Basket of UltimateThings (Abhidhamma Piṭaka) which consists of the higher and special doctrine delivered by the Buddha.

1. Vinaya Piṭaka

The first one of the Tripiṭaka is Vinaya piṭaka or “basket of Discipline”. It deals with the rules and regulations promulgated by the Buddha for the monks and nuns in their daily life. It has five books and grouped into three divisions.

1. Pārājikapāli

2. Pācittiyapāli

3. Mahāvaggapāli

4. Cullavāggapāli

5. Parivārapāli

Suttavibhanga: “the word sutta (sutta in Sanskrit) is a very ancient literary term in India. The literary meaning is “thread”, and it is applied to a kind of book the contents of which are, as it were, a thread, giving the gist of substance of more than is expressed in them in words.[17]” According to Buddhism sutta means a discourse, a chapter or a small part of a sacred book. In the Vinayapiṭaka suttavibhanga means rules and regulations of the order which is called Pātimokka (Bhikku and Bhikkhuni). Sutta vibhanga explains all the disciplinary rules recorded in the Pātimokkha. Therefore Suttavibhanga is a commentary on the Patimokkha-sutta ("Obligatory Rules") of the Vinayapitaka. It is one of the oldest parts of the Pali canon. It consists of two parts, (the Bhikkhu-patimokkha ("Rules for Monks") and the Bhikkhuni-patimokkha ("Rules for Nuns"). Suttavibhanga is devided into two books called Pārājikaāli and Pācittiyapāli.

1. Pārājika Pāli[18] which is Book I of the Vinaya Piṭaka gives an elaborate explanation of the important disciplinary rules concerning Pārājika and Sanghādisesa, as well as Aniyata and Nissaggiya which are minor offences.

2. The Pācittiya Pāli[19] which is Book II of the Vinaya Piṭaka deals with the remaining sets of rules for the bhikkhus, namely, the Pācittiya, the Pāṭidesanīya, Sekhiya, Adhikaraṇasamatha and the corresponding disciplinary rules for the bhikkhunis. Although it is called in Pali just Pacittiya, it has the distinctive name of 'Suddha Pacittiya', ordinary Pācittiya, to distinguish it from Nissaggiya Pācittiya, described above.

The second section of the vinayapiṭaka is Khandaka. It is also sub-divided into two parts.

3. The third book of the Vinaya piṭaka is Mahāvagga (great section). It is divided into ten Khandakas(chapters)namely,Mahākkhandhaka,Uposathakkhandhaka,Vassūpanāyikakkhandhaka,Pavāranakkhandhaka,cammakkhandhaka,Bhesajjahkkhandaka,kaṭhinakkhandhaka,Cīvarakkhandhaka, Campeyyakkhandhaka, Kosambakkhandaka.[20] It gives an historical account of Buddha’s enlightenment. His first sermon of Dhammachakkappavattana sutta to five disciples and joining his great disciples to the order……… ect. It also included How he began to stabilize the order, the rules for ordination, for reciting the Pātimokkha during uposatha days, and various procedures that monks are to perform during formal gatherings of the community, observing the rains retreat (vassa) and Kaṭhina ceremony where annual making and offering of robes take place….etc.

4. The fourth book is Cullavagapāli[21] (minor section). It is also divided into twelve Khandakas(chapters)namely,

(1) Kammakkhandhaka(Rules for dealing with offences that come before the Order),

(2) Pārivāsikakkhandhaka (Procedures for putting a Bhikkhu on probation),

(3) Samuccayakkhandhaka (Procedures for dealing with accumulation of offences by a Bhikkhu),

(4) Samathakkhandhaka(Rules for settling legal procedures in the Order),

(5) Khuddakhavatthukkhandhaka (Miscellaneous rules for bathing, dress, etc),

(6) Senāsanakkhandhaka (Rules for dwellings, furniture, lodging, etc),

(7) Sanghabhedhakkhandhaka (Rules for schisms),

(8) Vatthakkhandhaka ( duties of teachers and novices -Samanera),

(9) Pātimokkhakkhandhaka (Rules for exclusion from the

(10) Patimokkha),Bhikkhuṇikkhandhaka (Rules for the ordination and instruction of Bhikkhunis),

(11) Pañcasatikakkhandhaka (Account of the First Council, at Rajagaha),

(12) sattasatikakkhandhaka (Account of the Second Council, at Vesāli).

5. The Parivāra is the third section of vinayapiṭaka and the fifth book. It contains summaries and classifications of the disciplinary rules. It is a later supplement. The Parivāra could be considered as a manual for the above four books.

2. Sutta Piṭaka

Suttapiṭaka (the basket of discourses) is the largest and most important portion of Tripiṭaka. Suttapiṭaka comprises of five nikāyas (five collections).

(1) Dīghanikāya ( collection of Long discourses)

(2) Majjhiamanikāya (collection of middle length discourse)

(3) Saṃyuttanikāya (collection of Kindred sayings)

(4) Anguttaranikāya (collection of gradual sayings-numerically arranged)

(5) Khuddakanikāya (smaller collection)

According to the idea of commentator Buddhaghosa the five Nikāyas denotes divisions of the Sutta Piṭaka. It is a narrow meaning but the wider meaning of five Nikāyas cover all the tripiṭaka, including the Vinaya piṭaka. Abhidhammapiṭaka is included in the last Khuddhakanikāya.[22] The aim of the suttapiṭaka is only to discover the reality and give the deep knowledge of Buddha’s teaching. Most of the suttas were intended mainly for the benefit of monks and nuns and there are several other sūttas which deal with both the physical and moral progress of His lay devotees.

According to T.W. Rhys Davids, the importance of Sutta piṭaka is apparent. “The....great division is the sutta piṭaka...and here we come to the sources of our knowledge of the most ancient Buddhism”.[23] That means ‘Sutta piṭaka’ is very important in any search for objective and systematic knowledge about the fundamental Buddhism. It is really advantages for us to have the whole sutta piṭaka whose composition is prior to the earliest Buddhist schism at least in its scriptural appearance though this does not necessarily follow that there would have not been any later addition and editorial touching. Therefore there is no trace of any sectarian bias. His opinion is the first four Nikāyas had been put together out of older materials.[24]All of the discourses of Sutta piṭaka have been attributed to the Buddha but there are several discourse could be found in whole Suttapiṭaka delivered by his distinguished disciples such as the Venerable Sāriputta, Mahā Moggallāna, Mahakacchāya, Venerable Ānanda etc.

According to T.W. Rhys Davids ‘Dīghanikāya and Majjhimanikāya are not two books but one book in two volumes that is to say long and medium length. It contains 186 dialogues of Gotama Buddha arranged according to their length. They are discussions on all the religious and philosophical points of the Buddhist view of life’.[25] These dialogues are most genuine and authoritative, but their arrangement according to the length and not to the subject of the Suttas. Rhys Davids assumes that ‘it was very likely just this consideration which led to the compilation of the other two [26] namely the Ańguttanikāya and Saṃyuttnikāya.

K.T.S.Sarao’s observation is different with Rhys David’s opinion. He doesn’t see chronological distinction between the 186 dialogues and the later two collections. He deals with the four Nikāyas equally as the Buddha’s sayings which were ‘collected together by his disciples into the first four nikāyas’. He says “The first four Nikāyas belong to the earlier part of the Canon and in language and style too, there is no essential difference amongst themselves”. Sarao accepts that the second Buddhist council should be marked as the time when the composition of the four Nikāyas completed.[27] But Saravo put the last Nikāya, Khuddhakanikāya as younger than the others saying: “the developed doctrine found in the certain smaller books especially the buddhavaṃsa, Cariyāpiṭaka, petavatthu, vimānavatthu shows that they are younger than the first Nikāyas”.[28]

B.C. Law’s opinion is not only four Nikāyas but also five nikāyas of Suttapiṭaka, certainly would come to completion before the compilation of the Milindapañha[29] in which authoritative passages are quoted from the texts of Sutta Piṭaka, in certain instances by mentioning name of the sources. Therefore we can come to a conclusion Sutta piṭaka closed along with the entire Pāli Canon and when the Canon was finally rehearsed in Sri lanka and committed to writing during the reign of King Vaṭṭagāmiṇi Abhaya.’ Therefore the sutta Piṭaka as authoritative source of the Buddha’s sermons could supposedly be in existence as early as the first and half of the second century B.C. so long as the date of King Milinda is concerned.[30]

Dīgha Nikāya

The Dīgha Nikāya is the first book of Sutta Piṭka which contains 34 suttas in three groups.

1. Sīlakkhandha Vagga Pāḷi
2. Mahā Vagga Pāḷi
3. Pāthika Vagga Pāḷi

The first group of divisions is named as ‘Sīlakkhanda vagga’ concerning the morality. This division contains 13 suttas which deals with various types Morality (sīla) namely Cūla sīla (minor Morality) Majjhima sīla (middle morality) and Mahā sīla (Major smorality) which are mostly practiced by Samanas and Brahmanas. It further explains about the sixty two heretical views prevailed in the 6^th century B.C and Brahmanical view of sacrifice, cast system, various religious practices such as self mortification and self indulgences (kamasukallikanuyoga and attakilamatānuyoga).

The second division is named as Mahāvagga or Large Division. There 10 suttas dealing with biographical, historical and doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. Mhāpadāna sutta deals with brief account of the last six Buddhas and Biography of the Vipassi Budda. Mahā Nidāna sutta explains about dependent origination and Mahasatipaṭṭhānasutta deals with the four methods of mindfulness of Meditation (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā).These two suttas are very in doctrine. Mahāparinibbāna sutta is the longest sutta of suttapiṭaka and it gives the account of last three months and passing away of the Goutama Buddha and distribution of His relics.

The last division of Dīghanikāya is Pāṭika vagga contains of 11 suttas. They deal with the rejection of severe ascetic practices, followed by sects at the Buddhā’s time. [31] They also deal with Story of the universal king, the coming of the future Buddha Metteya and the 32 marks of a Great Man, discussion on caste, and an exposition on the origin of things (as in Sutta 24) down to the origin of the four castes, the duties of the householder to the six classes of person (traditionally regarded as the lay vinaya). The last two suttas are sangīti and Dasuttara delivered by Ven.Sāriputta and they contain the principles of the Teaching in ten numerical groups and the doctrine in tenfold series.

Majjhima Nikāya

The Majjhima Nikāya, Medium length discourses is made up of one hundred fifty two discourses. Some of them attributed to Buddhā’s distinguished disciples. The book is divided into three groups as Pṇṇāsa. The first group is Mūlapaṇṇāsa divided into five vaggas dealing with fifty suttas, the second group is Majjhimapaṇṇāsa consists of second fifty sutas also divided into five vaggas and the last fifty two suttas are dealt with five vaggas of the third group, Uparipaṇṇāsa. The suttas of Majjhiama Nikāya cover all the aspect of Buddhism especially the Philosophical aspects. The suttas included in this nikāya throw much light on the social ideas and institutions or monastic life of those days, the excesses of asceticism Buddhā’s debate with Jains, Practice of Jhāna, meditation (the four methods of steadfast mindfulness, namely, contemplating the body ‘kāyānupassanā’, contemplating sensation ‘vedanānupassanā’, contemplating the mind ‘cittānupassanā’, and contemplating the dhamma ‘dhammānupassanā’ as the only way for the purification of beings- “ekāyano ayaṃ Bhikkave sttānaṃ visuddhiyā, sokapariddavānaṃ samatikkhamāya, dukkadomanassanaṃ attakiriyāya yadidaṃ cattāro satipaṭṭhānā” )[32]and also provide general information on the economic and political life together with the basic doctrinal and ethical teachings. The title of the vaggas are given according to the contents of that vaggas, some are named according to the first sutta of the vagga. It is conspicuous that the suttas of Majjhimanikāya represents the most genuine sayings of the Buddha.

Saṃyutta Nikāya

“Grouped” or “connected” series of suttas in the Sutta Piṭaka is known as Saṃyutta Nikāya. In the European edition the Nikāya contains 2889 suttas in all, however according to the commentator Buddhaghosa[33], there are 7762 suttas of varied length, generally short, grouped in a special order according to content into five major divisions or vaggas: (1) Sagāthā Vagga (2) Nidāna Vagga (3) Khandha Vagga (4) Saḷāyatana Vagga and (5) Mahā Vagga. Each major vagga is divided into fifty-six groups or small vaggas known as saṃyuttas-related subjects grouped together. The way of division in this Nikāya may cause confusion because ‘vagga’ denotes simultaneously the five vaggas of the first level and those of the third level. The suttas are named according to the subject or doctrine, calss of god, demen or man, and prominent personalities as speaker or hero such as the Venerable Sāriputta, King Pasenadi of Kosala, or Sakka , e.g. Sakka samyutta contains where Sakka plays a part while Bojjhaṅga Saṃyutta on the seven factors of enlightenment are discussed. Kosala Saṃyutta is a group of discourses concerning King Pasenadi of Kosala, and Devatā Saṃyutta deals with devas like Sakka, Indra, Brahmā, etc. The method of arrangement of Saṃyuttanikāya shows that it contains some of the most important teachings of the Buddha. . Each saṃyutta is further divided into sections which are made up of individual suttas. The first sermon of the Buddha, The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta is the first discourse (sutta) in the second section of Sacca Saṃyutta which comes under the Mahāvagga division of Saṃyutta Nikāya. The Sacca Saṃyutta contains 131 suttas dealing with different aspects of four noble truths[34] (Caturārya satya). T.W. Rhys Davids has offered beautiful introductory words for Samyuttanikāya among the five Nikāyas. It is quoted completely here:

“The venture into the contents of these books will find himself for the most part in curious woodland of fairies, gods, and devils, with royal and priestly interviewers of the sublime teacher, opening out here on a settlement of religious brethren, there on scenes of life in rural communities... Devās he will see; sons and daughters of 'the gods,'... they will enchant the eye of his imagination with a glory of colour, and while minor forest devās will show concern in his spiritual welfare, those of this or that heaven will welcome him to celestial mansions. He will hear riddles and saws in doggerel metre, current in ancient Indian folk-philosophy... that mothered efforts at thinking seriously, however rudimentary they might be.

The prince of darkness - of life-lust and of recurring death - will startle him in odd and fearsome shapes and ways. Grave and noble Sisters will show him a serene peace, and a grasp of truth won at the cost of much that life holds dear. The incorrigible will give themselves away as they talk before him. Mysterious aboriginal creatures, in process of being merged into the stock of folk-myth, will come forth from the abandoned shrines of dead deities to listen or menace. And the gods of to-day will contend before him with the gods of yesterday, become the Titans of to-day.

And ever, as he wanders on, there will move before him, luminous and serene, the central figure of the great-hearted Gotama, bringing him to the wood's end braced and enlightened by the beneficent tension of listening to many wise sayings... the matter of them is of the stamp of the oldest doctrine known to us, and from them a fairly complete synopsis of the ancient dhamma might be compiled... they contribute not a little to body out our somewhat vague outline of India's greatest son, so that we receive successive impression of his great good sense, his willingness to adapt his sayings to the individual inquirer, his keen intuition, his humour and smiling irony, his courage and dignity, his catholic and tender compassion for all creatures [35]”

When we come back to the method of arrangement of Saṃyuttanikāya which done according to the contents of the sutta we could see the specified topic was conceived and how it was solved in the Buddhist system. According to B.C Law Saṃyuttanikāya is the result of an attempt to put together relevant passages throwing light on the topics of deeper doctrinal importance.[36]

In the Milindapāha and Peṭakopadesa, the name of Saṃyutta Nikāya has been quoted Saṃyuttanikāya, ‘saṃyuttanikāyavare’[37] ‘Samyuttabhānakā’[38]as an authoritative source. Then This Nikāya must have existed as an authoritative source among the Pāli Canon before the compilation of both Milindapanha and Peṭakopadesa.

Ańguttara Nikāya

The collection of gradual sayings of suttas is named as Ańguttaranikāya According to the theravāda tradition, Venerable Buddhaghosa says that there are 9557 suttas “navasuttasahassaṃ pañcasata sattapaṇṇāsasuttasaṃgaho Ańguttaranikāyo”[39] but in the P.T.S. Edition only 2308 suttas are existed. Milindapañha has quoted this book as ‘ekuttaranikāya’. Sanskrit literature of Sarvāsti tradition has named this book as ‘Ekottarāgama’.Now we can find that in Chinese translation. It is divided into eleven chapters known as Nipāta. Each Nipāta is devided again into groups called Vaggas. Each vagga contains 10 suttas. The suttas of Ańguttaranikāya are arranged in ascending order containing of dhamma items. We can understand the position of the Buddhism from Ańguttara nikāya same as the first three nikāys. The first nipāta contains single item of suttas and followed by the second nipāta, group of two items. Thus Anguttaranikāya begins with one item of dhamma and ends with 11 items of dhamma of last nipāta.

The first Nipāta is Ekaka nipāta deals with single items such as Concentrated mind,un-concentrated mind, trained mind or untrained mind, cultivatedmind; the Buddha, Sāriputta, Moggallāna, Right view wrong view….etc. Duka nipāta speaks of pairs, e.g. two kinds of sins or karma, hopes and desire, two assemblies of monks: those who have realized/ not realized the Four Noble Truth, gain and longevity.

The other nipātas are tika nipāta, catukka nipāta, pancake nipāta, chakka nipāta, sattaka nipāta, aṭṭhaka nipāta, nawaka nipāta, dasaka nipāta and last one is ekādasa nipāta. The typical examples for the above mentioned each nipatas are three praiseworthy acts, three offences of body, speech and mind; Undisciplined persons lack conduct, concentration, insight, emancipation; the four “divine abodes” Loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; four faults of ascetics and Brahmins: Drinking fermented liquor, addiction to sense pleasures, accepting money, earning their livelihood by unethical means, the five obstacles or five mental hindrances: Sensual lust, ill will, sloth, restlessness and worry, sceptical doubt; five evil qualities: Not free from passion, hatred, delusion, hypocrisy, malice, six fold duty of a monk: Abstaining from distracting work, arguments, sleep and company; humility; association with the wise; seven kinds of wealth; seven kinds of attachment, Eight causes of mindfulness/almsgiving/earthquakes, nine types of persons; nine contemplations, ten object of contemplation.

Khuddhaka Nikāya

Khuddaka nikāya is the last one of the Suttapiṭaka contains the largest number of treaties. It is a collection of shorter books. Although the word “khuddhaka” means “minor” or “small”, the actual content is very big because it is not a small collection of work. Khuddakanikāya comprises very early works as well as later compositions than the other four nikāyas and much more varied in form and content in comparison with them. Professor Oliver Abeynayake has mentioned the following idea about the date of the various books in the Khuddaka Nikaya[40]: “The Khuddaka Nikaya can easily be divided into two strata, one being early and the other late. The texts Sutta Nipāta, Itivuttaka, Dhammapada, Therigāthā ,Theragathā, Udāna and Jātaka belong to the early stratum. The texts Khuddakapaṭha, Vimānavatthu, Petavatthu, Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga, Apadāna, Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpitaka can be categorized in the later stratum”

According to Oliver Abeynayaka the early part of the Khuddakanikāya belongs before the date of Second council. Those are earlier than 100 years after Buddha’s passing away, while the later compositions belong after the second council. They don’t have the original teachings of the Buddha because they were composed by the disciples and added to the Suttapiṭaka. M.Winternitz also reveals the lateness of the Khuddaka Nikāya.[41] B.C. Law supposes that the first four Nikāyas were completed while the khuddaka Nikāya series remained still open.[42] K.T.S.Sarao says that that buddhavaṃsa, Cariyāpiṭaka, Vimānavatthu and Petavatthu cannot be attributed to the Buddha but for his disciples’ compositions and later added to the Khuddakanikāya.[43] Milindapañha, Barhut and Sañci inscriptions which belong to middle of the 2^nd century B.C. also have mentioned about the five Nikāyas inclusively khuddaka Nikāya and different schools of reciters of the five Nikāyas.

The books included in this piṭaka have not been same in all the places. According to the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka, Khuddaka nikāya contains fifteen books but according to the Burmese tradition it is a collection of eighteen books with Milindapañha, nettippakaraṇa and peṭakopadesa and Suttasaṃgaha. According to them Thera/Theri gātha are not two books but one single book. The fifteen books of Khuddakanikāya as follows.

(1).Khuddakapāṭha (2). Dhammapada (3). Udāna (4). Itivuttaka (5). Suttanipāta (6). Vimānavatthu (7). Petavatthu (8). Theragatha (9). Therigātha (10). Jātakas (11). Niddesa (12). Paṭisambhidāmagga (13). Apadāna (14). Buddhavaṃsa (15). Cariyāpiṭaka

Niddesa also is divided into two as Cullaniddesa and Mahāniddesa but according to the theravāda tradition, it has named as one single book. Venerable Buddhaghosa has mentioned in Atthasālini “ paṇṇarasappabhedo Khuddakanikāyo”.[44] He further says that in the first council, the monks who recited Majjhimanikāya (majjhimabhānaka- reciters of majjhima ) included these fifteen books into Suttapiṭaka and put as Khuddakanikāya “majjhimabhāṇako pana.........sabbaṃpi khuddaka gantaṃ suttapiṭake pariyāpaṇṇaṃti vadanti”[45] But reciters of Dīghanikāya (Dīghabhānakas) opposed to this idea. They accept that Khuddhakanikāya should be included into abhidhamma Piṭaka not in Suttapiṭaka. They only accept the following books as the Khuddakanikāya. Buddhagosa thera has mentioned about this disagreement also “tato paraṃ jātakaṃ ..........thera theri gāthāni iamaṃ tantiṃ saṃgāyitvā, Khuddaṃto, nāmaṃ ayam ti ca vatvā Abhidhammapiṭakasmiṃ yeva saṃgahaṃ āropayiṃsuti dīghabhānakā vadanti.[46]

(1). Suttanipāta (2). Dhammapada (3). Udāna (4). Itivuttaka (5). Vimānavatthu (6). Petavatthu (7). Theragātha (8). Therīgāthā(9).Jataka (10). Niddesa (11). Paṭisambhidāmagga

Dīghabhānaka have rejected Cariyāpiṭaka, Apadāna, Buddhavaṃsa and Khuddakapāṭha as the Books of Khuddhaka nikāya. At the first council Venerable Mahākassapa asked from Venerable Ānanda that what should recite at first among the four treaties of Suttapiṭaka “Suttapiṭake catasso saṃgītiyo, tāsu paṭhamaṃ kataraṃ saṃgītiṃti”.[47] That means Sutta Piṭaka has been divided into four at first. Then what is Khuddaka Nikāya? The commentator Buddhaghosa has mentioned in the Sumangalavilāsini Whole vinaya Piṭaka and Abhidhamma Piṭaka and fifteen treaties such as khuddakapāṭha that means besides the first for nikāya of sutta piṭka whole Buddha vacana is Khuddaka nikāya. Here Abhidhammapiṭaka also has included into Khuddakanikāya. “kathame khuddaka nikāyo? sakalaṃ vinayapiṭakaṃ, abhidhamma piṭakaṃ,Khuddakapāthādayo ca pubbe nidassitapañcadasabhedo, thapetvā, cttāro nikāye avasesaṃ Buddhavacanaṃti”.[48]

Professor Hirakawa Akira also has stated that “the Khuddaka Nikaya represent a stage in the development of the Pali Canon in which new material was not added any more to the rest of the Sutta Pitaka, but was added to a Khuddaka Pitaka instead. This Khuddaka Pitaka was the repository for materials that were left out of the four Nikayas (the Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya and Anguttara Nikaya) and thus included both early and late texts.[49] He further says that The Khuddaka Nikaya of the Theravada school is the only extant example of such a Khuddaka Piṭaka”.[50]

B.C. Law supposes that the five Nikāyas, the seven books of Abhidhammapiṭaka and all the text of Vinayapiṭaka brought to Sri lanka by venerable Mahinda from India after the Third Buddhist council.[51] An authoritative source, Kathāvatthuppakarana has quoted some treaties of Khuddakanikāya together with the other Nikāyas.[52]

Abhidhamma Piṭaka

Abhidhammapiṭaka is the third great division of tripiṭaka and historically latest one and most important one. The commentator Buddhaghosa has explained the meaning of “Dhamma” with “Abhi” abhi - higher or special + dharma- teaching “Dhhamātireka dhammavisesaṭṭhena atirekavisesatthadīpakohi ettha Abhisaddo”.[53] It is known as special doctrine, additional doctrine, further doctrine or extra doctrine. Abhidhammapiṭaka is not generally attributed to the Buddha but for the disciples of the Buddha and great scholars. All the treaties are designated by name of Prakaraṇa. The title of Third piṭka has used only in the chronicals and commentaries “idaṃ Abhidhammapiṭakaṃ nāmāti vatvā pañca arahantasatāni sajjhāyamakaṃsu”[54]. Abhidhamma is highly respected particularly in Myanmar. There are several questions about Abhidhammapiṭaka. Mahāsaṃghika School has not accepted Abhidhammapiṭaka with other Canonical texts. Another school included it into Khuddhakanikāya. According to the report of chapter ix and xii (Pañcasatikakkhandaka and sattasatikakkhandaka) of Cullavaggapāli Abhidhammapiṭaka was not rehearsed at either council.[55] Abhidhammapiṭaka was completed after composing Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa (point of controversy) by Venerable Moggalaputtatissa Thera as a result of the third council. According to G.C Pande Abhidhammapiṭaka grew out of Mātikās and could be found only in Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda schools. Dharmaguptas and Kasyapiyas also have had an Abhidhammapiṭaka but they were sub-schools of Mahāyana. B.C.Law says “In dealing with the chronology of the seven treatises of the Abhidhammapitaka, we can only maintain that the order in which these treatises are enumerated can be interpreted as the order of the chronology. Any attempt at establishing such an interpretation would be vitiated by the fact that the order of enumeration is not in all cases the same. There are seven Abhidharma treaties of Theravāda tradition and the order has been mentioned in the Milinda Panha”.[56] Those prakaraṇas are Dhammasańgani,Vibhańga, Dhātukathā, Puggalapaññatti, Kathāvatthu, Yamaka, and Paṭṭhāna.Ven.Buddhaghosa has mentioned same order in Sumańgalavilasini, dīghanikāya commentary. "Dhammasamgani, Vibhanga, Dhatukathā, Puggalapaññatthi, kathāvatthu, Yamaka, Patthanam Abhidhammoti vuccati."[57]

The Sarvāstivāda Abhidhammapiṭaka also comprises six books know as Pāda and Jñānaprasthāna: [58]

· Jnānaprasthāna ('Foundation of Knowledge')-Arya Kātyāyanī

· Saṃgitiparyāyapāda ('Discourses on Gathering Together') Mahākausṭhila or Shāriputta

· Prakaraṇapāda ('Exposition')-Vasumitra

· Vijnānakayapāda ('Body of Consciousness')-Devasharmā

· Dhātukayapāda ('Body of Elements')-Pūrṇa Vasumitra

· Dharmaskandhapāda ('Aggregation of Dharmas')- Shāriputra (Yashomitra) or Mahāmaudgalyāyana

· Prajñaptisāstrapāda ('Treatise on Designations')- Maudgalyāyana

· Mahāvibhāsha is the great commentary of Prajñaptisāstrapāda

All these books could be found in Chinese. The most important book is Jnānaprasthāna. According to Sarvātivāda tradition all these books are attributed to the great disciples of the Buddha. In comparison with Theravāda tradition number in each tradition is similar and only one book is little bit similar in title, the Dhātukāya. This proves that Sarvāstivādins were well aware of the number of the books in Theravāda Abhidhamma piṭaka and they refused their book and replaced them by new collection[59] of books after the schism. According to Atthasālini the commentary of Dhammasańganippakaraṇa, Buddhaghosa says The Buddha spent fourth week in the ‘Ratanaghara’ after the enlightenment by memorizing Abhidhamma Piṭaka in its all details. As it is mentioned above, after that he preached Abhidhamma to the gods of Heaven Tāvatiṃsa at the foot of pāriccattaka tree during the visit of his mother in the heaven of the seventh rainy season. Then he preached them to Venerable Sāriputta when his daily return to earth for meal. As far as seven treaties of Abhidhamma Piṭaka are concerned, it could be seen that they are based on Suttapiṭaka dealing with special topics and philosophical interpretations.

Here is a brief introduction to each and every book of Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka.

Dhammasańgaṇiprakaraṇa: The book begins with Mātikā. (Summary of the Dhamma or classification of Dhamma): Dhamma can be translated as Phenomena, idea or states….etc. The content of this book has been divided into main four parts.

(i) Cittuppada Kanḍa-state of mind

(ii) Rupa Kanḍa-material phenomena, classifying them numerically

(iii) Nikkhepa Kanḍa-part that avoids elaboration, explaining classification in the Mātikā

(iv) Aṭṭhakatha Kanḍa- part of Supplementary Digest, gives more details

The first two parts are the most important potion of this book. The first division Cittuppāda Kanḍa deals with a complete enumeration of the Mind under the heading of Kusala (moral) and Akusala (immoral). The Rūpa Kanḍa deals with all the states of matter under heading of Abyākata Dhamma or Asańkhatadhātu (indeterminate Phenomena). The Nikkhepakhaḍa deals with a summary of Dhammas under the headings of the ‘dukas’ and ‘tikas’. The Mātikā consists altogether 122 groups, of which the first twenty two are called the Tikas or Triads, those which are divided under three heads; and the remaining one hundred are called the Dukas or Dyads, those which are divided under two heads. The last division of this book is Aṭṭhakathā Kanḍa deals with duka and tika same as the third part. It is also a summary of the Dhammas. This book is most popular in Sri Lanka.

Vibhańgappakaraṇa: (book of analysis or classification) This is the second book of Abhidhammapiṭaka which provides a closely related foundation for the deep and proper understanding about the teaching of the Buddha together with Dhammasańgaṇi and Dhātukathā. Vibhańga is a supplementary work to the Dhammasańgaṇi. Dhammasangani explains what and how many khandha, ayatana, dhatu, ahāra, indriya, jhāna etc. But it has not mentioned all the information about Dhammas but Vibhańga provides complete information concerning five aggregates aspects (khandha), the physical basis of the six types of consciousness, the physical and mental elements, the four holy truths, the twenty-two skills, the conditional formation (Paticcasamuppāda), the four right efforts, the four pillars of the senses, the four bases of magical powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the eightfold path, the self-wells (jhāna), the four immensities, customs rules, the four analytical knowledge (paṭisambhidā ), the knowledge etc.

Vibhańgappakaraṇa is divided into eighteen chapters concerning the particular aspect of dhamma.

1. Khandha vibhańga	2. (x) Bojjhańga vibhańga
3. Āyatana vibhańga	4. (xi) Magga vibhańga
5. Dhātu vibhańga	6. (xii) Jhāna vibhańga
7. Sacca vibhańga	8. (xiii) Appammaññā vibhańga
9. Indriya vibhańga	10. (xiv) Sikkhāpada vibhańga
11. Paṭiccasamuppāda vibhańga	12. (xv) Paṭisambhidā vibhańga
13. Satipaṭṭhāna vibhańga	14. (xvi) Ñāna vibhańga
15. Sammappadhāna vibhańga	16. (xvii) Khuddhaka vatthu vibhańga
17. Iddhipāda vibhańga	18. (xviii) Dhammahadaya vibhańga

Each category is discussed and analyzed in three methods

1. Suttantabhājanīya- meaning of the terms and classification of the dhammas determined according to the sutta method

2. Abhidharmabhājanīya- meaning of the terms and classification of the dhammas determined according to the sutta method

3. Pañhapucchaka- questions and answers

Dhātukathāppakaraṇa- (Discussion of Elements-) Meeting of the eighteen elements or factors of psychophysical processes: This is the third book Abhidhammapiṭaka and it classifies the elements of reality according to the various levels of organizations. Dhātukathā has done a special and comprehensive study on first three Vibhańgas (Skhanda, Āyatana, Dhātu) among the eighteen fold Vibhangas of the second book. Vibhanga has one full chapter separated to the analysis of dhātus. Khanda, dhātu and āyatana are the subject matter of this book. Therefore Ven.Ñānātiloka says that the complete name of this book should be ‘Khanda-Āyatana-Dhātukathā.’[60] The method of analysis in this book is different from that employed in the Vibhanga. This book studies how the dhammas listed in the Tikas and Dukas related to the three categories of khanda, āyatana,dhātu in their complete distribution These Dharmas are 114 according to Mātikās; Five khandhas, twelve āyatana and eighteen dhātus. Four truths, twenty two indriya, paṭiccasamuppāda, Four mindfulnes etc. dhatukathā is also a supplementary book.

Puggalapaññatthi: Designation of Person- (Description of the individuals according to their salient traits). According to Abhidhamma, there are two truths, conventional truth (sammuti sacca) and absolute truth (paramattha sacca). Abhidhamma is mainly concerned with Absolute truth. But according to the Dhamma, it is not possible to use only absolute term in day today communication. The first three books of Abhidhamma investigate the absolute truth of Dhamma analyzing khanda, dhātu, āyatana, indriya, sacca etc. But according to conventional truth such words can be used as man, woman, deva (god), yakka, puggala (individual) etc which have no existence in reality. People are classified according to their spiritual attainments after the manner of enumeration employed in Ańguttaranikāya. Here different types of individuals are classified in ten chapters in relation to stage of Buddhist path (four ariyasāvaka, putajjana, samyaksambudda,paccekabuddda, arya, anarya).

Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa: (point of controversy), this is the last and historically most important book of Abhidhammapiṭaka which has a particular author in the whole Pāli Tripiṭaka. This was written by Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa discussing the controversial doctrinal points among the various Buddhist schools after the third Buddhist convocation. Kathāvattuppakaraṇa is also an outside book of the regular system of Abhidhammapiṭaka. It doesn’t follow the abstruse nature of Dhamma. It is a series of dialogue mainly concerned with heretical point of views, such as self exists, person exists etc. There were eighteen sects altogether after two hundred eighteen years of Buddha’s parinibbāna. Among them only Theravada Buddhist school was held the true orthodox. Others were schismatic. The third council was held under the patronage of King Asoka for expelling them from the true Buddhist order in 236 B.C. At the assembly, Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa thera expounded points of controversy with five hundred orthodox statements and five hundred heretical points of views. The style of this composition is quite different with other prakaraṇas because it is in the form of dialogue between the writer and imaginary debater of heretics.

Yamakappakaraṇa: Yamaka means pair. It deals with pair of questions and each delt with in two opposite ways (anuloma-ascending order, paṭiloma- descending order). The Dhammasańganippakaraṇa, The Vibhangappakaraṇa and The Dhātukathāprakaraṇa investigate the Dhamma and their classifications as they exist in the world of reality, named Sankhāraloka. . Puggalapannattippakaraṇa and Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa deal with beings and individuals which also exist in their own world of apparent reality, known as Sattāloka. Where the dhamma of Sańkhāraloka and beings of the Sattāloka co-exist is termed the Okāsaloka. Yamakappakaraṇa deals with analyzing the interrelationship of dhammas and puggalas as they exist in these three worlds.

Paṭṭhānappakaraṇa: (Activation or Causes): This is the last book of seven Abhidhamma treaties. It investigates the ultimate nature of all phenomena (dhammas) in the world. This book is a complex and voluminous treatment of causality and twenty three other kind of relationship between phenomena, mental or material.

K.R. Norman accepts that Abhidhamma Piṭaka is later than the other Pāli canon. Although the great chronicle of Sri Lanka ‘mahāvaṃsa’ mentions that the Arahants who gathered at the second council knew Abhidhamma Piṭaka, there no mention in Cullavaggapāli capter 11 or 12 (Pancasatikakkhandaka or Sattasatikakkhandaka) and chronicles of reciting Abhidhammapiṭaka at the first and second councils. Mahasańgikas also refuted the Abhidhamma. This precisely means that Abhidhamma did not exist at that time, or at least was not accepted as canonical texts.[61] Theravāda tradition attributes authority of whole Abhidhamma Piṭaka to the Buddha. It can be noted here that Abhidhamma Pitāka originated and developed during a period of two or three hundred years, beginning from the second or third century after The Bhuddhā’s Parinibbāna.

Nettippakaraṇa and Peṭakopadesa: According to Sri Lankan Theravāda tradition there three post canonical and pre commentarial texts. Those are Nettippakaraṇa, Peṭakopadesa and Milindapañha. Translation of Netippakaraṇa is “The Guide or Guidance” Professor George Bond says that it is a guide to help those who already understand the teaching present it to others[62] but A. K. Warder disagrees and says that it covers all aspects of interpretation[63]. Peṭakopadesa means “Instruction on the Piṭaka or Piṭaka disclosure”. According to the colophon of Nettippakaraṇa and Peṭakopadesa, the methods were taught by Venerable Mahākaccāyana and he composed these two books. It further mentions that these were approved by the Buddha and those were recited at the council. But scholars disagree with that statement and generally believe that these two treaties could have composed around first century A.D. Burmese tradition included these into Khuddhaka Nikāya[64] while Sri Lankan Theravāda tradition kept away as outside canonical texts.

Milindapañha: Theravāda Pāli "Milindapañha" (Chinese Translation-Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra"), mainly recorded in the middle of the second century BC, about five hundred years after The Buddha’s parinirvāna. Milindapañha is an ancient and much venerated book among the Buddhists. King Milinda ruled Northern India and he exchanged verbal conversations with elder monk Nāgesena on Buddhsit doctrine. The Milinda Pañha is a highly authoritative, post canonical Buddhist Pali text and it gives the account of details the philosophic and religious encounter between Greco-Bactrian king Milinda and wise monk bhikkhu Nāgasena. In their discussions, the king proposes a series of dilemmas based on points of Buddhist teachings which are then satisfied by the erudite responses of Nāgasena. Mr. T.W. Rhys Davids, the translator of the Pali texts, regarded the Milinda Pañha very highly. He said, “I venture to think that the ‘Questions of King Milinda’ is undoubtedly the masterpiece of Indian prose; and indeed the best book of its class, from a literary point of view, that had been produced in any country.[65] According to Theravada classic records, there were three hundred and four debates between king Milinda and Nāgasena, but these are only two hundred sixty-two problem is recorded. This account by using the debate the manner in which the structure of Buddhist Scriptures in general are rare, particularly by the special emphasis on the "wisdom" in the liberation of the important status and role. Although Theravada Tripitaka not included this book into Tripitaka "Myanmar Buddhist scriptures," is included this in "Khuddakanikāya". "Milindapañha” is widely popular in Europe and Asia in recent years. There are many translations of the whole world in English, French, German, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi, Sinhalese, Sanskrit and ancient Indian language (Prākrit) and so on. The extensive study by a considerable value: the value of history is concerned; this fact reflects the India by the Buddhist culture and Greek civilization, the initial dialogue with the elders and King Milinda. We can infer that time Greece and India differences between Eastern and Western cultures represented, it can be used as study Greek, Indian and Chinese thought the importance of information exchange can be said that cultural exchanges in the history of Greece and India an important historical books.

And for the Buddhist concept of Point of view, mainly to explain the one, diligent, honest, and the concepts of loving kindness or filial piety; to theoretical issues, the main reason that the transmigration of the soul, without, a monk of the purpose and value of Buddhist monks and other issues in this world. It is not in the history of Buddhist thought in terms of degree, the thinking between the Theravada to Mahayana thought into the transition period; it has its unique academic value. However, the value of their religious point of view, "Milindapañha" form of dialogue through text, vividly describes about the origin, without me, karma, reincarnation, and Nirvāna and other basic ideas of Buddhism. King MIlinda produced various issues to Nagasena and he dissolved everything skillfully. Milindapañha has seven chapters named Bāhirakathā, Lakkhanapañha, Vimaticchedanapañha, Mendakapañha, Anumānapañha, Dhutangapañha, Opammakathāpañha, Thus the Chinese version omits Parts 4 to 7 of the Pāli Version. Here is a brief introduction and further it will discuss at the significance of Milindapañha.

Nāgasena Bhishu Sutra: This is the Chinese version of Pāli Milindapañha. When we examine the history, there is a dark period in Buddhist history from Emperor Asoka in the in the 3^rd century B.C. to the time before writing down of Tripiṭaka in 1^st century B.C. because there is no Buddhist records to study about the Buddhist activities and order of monks.[66] However generally accept that there are three books which belong to this period. Among them Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra; the Chinese translation is a very important text to fill this gap as well as Pāli Milindapañha. Thus this book fills the above mentioned gap and provides us some valuable information to understand the Buddhist activities and development of Buddhist thought in this period.[67] There are two Chinese versions of this book found in the Taishō in Vol. 32: nos. 1670A and 1670B, pp. 694-719.[68] The Chinese version entitled the Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra corresponds to the first three chapters in the Pāli Milindapañha. It will be discussed deeply in the chapter of “Comparative Study of Milindapañha and Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra”. It means that there are only three chapters in Chinese Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra while milindapañha comprises seven chapters. There 76 dialogues between Nāgasena and King Milinda in Nāgasena Bhikshu Sūtra and 86 dialogues in first three chapters of Pāli Milindapañha. Chinese version of this text could be a translation of Sanskrit text. The earliest Chinese translation appeared in the period of Eastern Jin Dynasty in China (AD 317-420). Japanese scholar kogen Mizuno observes that the Chinese translation of the Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra must have been done in the second century CE either at the time of An Shigao (安世高)[69] or a little earlier.[70] This book is not much popular among the Western scholars compared with Pāli Milindapañha. There are only two translations of Nāgasenā bhiksu Sūtra compared to thirteen translations of the Pāli text.[71] There are only very few scholarly articles in Japanese, French, Chinese and English.

Significance of Milindapañha: Milindapañha is the Pāli book written in Northern India about the First Century B.C. and either in Sanskrit itself or in some North Indian Prākrit. Rhys Davids says, “it has been entirely lost in the land of its origin, and (so far as is at present known) is not extant in any of the homes of the various sects and schools of the Buddhists, except only in Ceylon, and in those countries which have derived their Buddhism from Ceylon.”[72]General Cunningham says[73] that the name of Milinda, ‘is still famous in all Buddhist countries’. Rhys Davids further says that ‘Milindapañha translated into Pāli in its very early time and preserved in its Southern home Sri Lanka and it has been a long popular work in its Pāli form has been translated into Sinhalese, and occupies a unique position, second only to the Pāli Piṭakas’.[74] King Milinda, a king of Bactria who reigned in southeast India, met a clever monk named Nāgasena. King Milinda asked several questions about the philosophy, psychology and ethics of Buddhism. For the understanding of the original Indian Buddhism, the exchange of ideas between India and Greece has an important significance. I suppose that this debate conducted in Greek Bactria but later translated into Pāli and Sanskrit. This famous book is called Milinda pañha or Questions of King Milinda, has translated into various languages such as Britain, Germany, Japan, France… etc.

From Sri Lanka this book has been transferred, in its Pāli form, to both Burma and Siam, and in those countries also it enjoys so high a repute.[75] This is an ancient Buddhist book of exalted and highly valued, so the Burmese people included in the Pāli Canonical scriptures. In the Pāli Canon said that the conversation between King Milinda and Nāgasena occurred 500 years after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna. T.W. Rhys Davids, a leading translator to Pāli scriptures, considers that this is a very good book. He says, "I dare to say that 'Questions of King Milinda' is clearly a major work of prose India; and viewed from a literary point really is the best book in its class, the best ever produced in any country, too."[76]

T.W. Rhys Davids says in the introduction of Milindapañha translation that the great Indian commentator Venerable Buddhaghosa has mentioned about Milindapañha several times in his commentaries at least not less than four times.[77] It is illustrative and very useful to quote fully here to understand the significance of Milindapañha.

“For the great Indian writer, who long ago found in that beautiful and peaceful island the best scope for his industrious scholarship, is already known to have: mentioned the book no less than four times in his commentaries; and that in such a manner that we may fairly hope to find other references to it when his writings shall have been more completely published. In his commentary on the Book of the Great Decease, VI, 3, Buddhaghosa refers to the quotation of that passage made in the conversation between Milinda and Nāgasena. And again, in his commentary on the Ambaṭṭha Sutta (D. III, 2, 12) he quotes the words of a conversation between Milinda and Nāgasena on the subject he is there discussing. The actual words he uses (they will be found at pp. 275, 276 of the edition of the Sumańgala Vilāsini, edited for the Pāli Text Society by Professor Carpenter and myself) are not the same as those of our author at the corresponding passage of Mr. Trenckner's text (pp. 168, 169; IV, 3, 11), but they are the same in substance.

The above two references in Buddhaghosa to our author were pointed out by myself. Dr. Morris has pointed out two others, and in each of those also Buddhaghosa is found to quote words differing from Mr. Trenckner's text. The former of these two was mentioned in a letter to the 'Academy' of the 12th November, 1881. In the Manoratha Pūraṇī, his commentary on the Anguttara, on the passage marked in Dr. Morris's edition as L 5, 8, Buddhaghosa says:--

'Imasmiṃ pan' atthe Milinda-rājā dhamma-kathika-Nāgasenattheraṃ pucci: "Bhante Nāgasena, ekasmim akkharakkhane pavattita-kitta-saṃkārā sake rūpino assa kīva mahā-rāsi bhavey-yāti?"'

And he then gives the answer:-'Vāhasatānam kho mahâ-râga vihînam addha-kūlañ ka vâhâ vîhi sattammanâni dve ka tumbâ ekakkharakkhane

pavattitassa kittassa sankham pi na upenti kalam pi na upenti kala-bhâgam pi na upentîti.'

This passage of the Milinda, referred to by Buddhaghosa, will be found on p. 102 of Mr. Trenckner's edition, and translated below at IV, 1, 19. But the question is not found there at all, and the answer, though much the same in the published text, still differs in the concluding words. Mr. Trenckner marks the passage in his text as corrupt and it may well be that Buddhaghosa has preserved for us an older and better reading.

The other passage quoted by Dr. Morris (in the 'Academy' of the 11th January, 1881) is from the Papaṇca Sūdanī, Buddhaghosa's still unedited Commentary on the Majjhima Nikāya. It is in the comment on the Brahmâyu Suttanta, and as it is not accessible elsewhere I give this passage also in full herb. With reference, oddly enough, to the same passage referred to above (pp. 168, 169 of the text, translated below at IV, 3, 11) Buddhaghosa, there says:--

'Vuttam etam Nāgasenattherena Milinda-rañña putthena: "Na mahārāja Bhagavā guyham dasseti khāyam Bhagavā dassetīti."'

In this case, as in the other quotation of the same passage, the words quoted are not quite the same as those given in the published text, and on the other hand they agree with, though they are much shorter than, the words as given in the Sumangala Vilāsinī.

It would be premature to attempt to arrive at the reason of this difference between Buddhaghosa's citations and Mr. Trenckner's edition of the text. It may be that Buddhaghosa is consciously summarising, or that he is quoting roughly from memory, or that he is himself translating or summarizing from the original work, or that he is quoting from another Pāli version, or that he is quoting from another recession of the text of the existing Pāli version. We must have the full text of all his references to the 'Questions of Milinda' before us, before we try to choose between these, and possibly other, alternative explanations. What is at present certain is that when Buddhaghosa wrote his great works, that is about 430 A.D., he had before him a book giving the conversations between Milinda and Nāgasena. And more than that He introduces his comment above referred to on the Ambaṭṭha Sutta by saying, after simply quoting the words of the text he is explaining: 'What would be the use of anyone else saying anything on this? For Nāgasena, the Elder, himself said as follows in reply to Milinda, the king 1'--and he then quotes Nāgasena, and adds not a word of his own. It follows that the greatest of all Buddhist writers known to us by name regarded the 'Questions of Milinda' as a work of so great authority that an opinion put by its author into the mouth of Nāgasena should be taken as decisive. And this is not only the only book, outside the Pāli Piṭakas, which Buddhaghosa defers to in this way, it is the only book, except the previous commentaries, which he is known even to refer to at all. But, on the other hand, he says nothing in these passages to throw any further light on the date, or any light on the authorship, of the work to which he assigns so distinguished, even so unique, a position.

The style of Milindapañha is very similar to the Platonic dialogues, where Nāgasena playing the role of Socrates and wining an argument with King Milinda of the Buddhist point of view, because his reasoning is sound and appropriate imagery. The author is not known, but almost certainly he used to live in northwestern India or the Punjab, because he did not mention the countryside in the southern Indian River Gańgā.[78] And this is supported by the existing information about the King Menander, King of Bactria was known as Milinda.

Much more is known about King Menander. A large number of his coins (currencies) have been found in large areas in the North India, so far to the west of Kabul, east of Mathura and Kashmir to the north. Often he was depicted as a young man or sometimes also the man who is very old. Plutarch said, "Menander was a very famous king fair and very close to the people. So when he died, this occurred in a camp-many cities scrambling to have the ashes. The quarrel was settled by agreement of the representatives from different cities to share relics, and then they set up monuments to commemorate the King ".[79]

Menander was one of the Greek kings of Bactria remained in Greece to continue the power established by the Great Alexander, and Menander is one of the most important king. He probably reigns from approximately 150 BC to 110 BC (so this conversation happened not more than 400 years after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna). Strabo reminded of the great kingdom of Bactria that expanded beyond the limits initially, and incidentally he also mentions that the king is primarily responsible for the expansion were Demetrius and Menander ... But compared to Demetrius, Menander left a mark that is much more deeply about the traditions of India.[80]

Menander controlled and annexed Indus Delta, the Peninsula of Surastra (Kathiyavār), occupying the Matura on Jumna, invaded Madyamika (Nagari near Chitor) and Saketam in Southern Part, and threatened the capital, Pātaliputta. But the attack was repulsed and Menander was forced back to their country.[81] Since the people of Bactria later became Buddhists it is not certain that King Menander really is the King Milinda is referred to in the book. But there is also the possibility that the conversation was a literary device used by authors to add interest to what was originally a detailed explanation of the Buddhist teachings, and a denial of wrong views, which had been circulated by those who are hostile to Buddhism.

The opening story in Milindapañha related to youth Nāgasena also almost identical to the story of a young Tissa Mogaliputta narrated in the Mahāvaṃsa, Sri Lanka Chronicle. Mogaliputta Tissa thera lived about 100 years before Menander and is mentioned two times in the text (Pāli Milndapañha 3.71 verse), so maybe this story is older. However, the Mahāvaṃsa, great chronicle was written much later by Mahānāma at the beginning of the 6th century AD, so the story might have been borrowed by Mahānāma from the book Milndapañha, which at that time a holy book edited by Buddhaghosa. (In Milinda Tika, a description of the Milndapañha, Stated that some verses in the prologue and epilogue in Milndapañha authored by Venerable Buddhaghosa).

From the conversations that occur between Milinda considered the Purāna Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala and several other sages, it was obvious that the opening story in this essay was fabricated by the author, because the hermit-sages were contemporary with the Buddha. This story is based on Sāmañña Phala Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya. But there is one noteworthy difference in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta,[82] Prince Ajātasattu went to visit the Buddha, but could not recognize him, while the introduction of Milndapañha, King Milinda said about Nāgasena, "No need to show him to me". So King Milinda was higher than the Prince Ajātasattu.

Chapter 02: historical background of Milindapañha

02.1. Rise of Magadha Kingdom and Expansion of Greese

02.1.1. Rise of Magadha Kingdom

The Buddha predicted in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta that the city of Pātaliputta, which was built just before his passing away, will be a great city. "Ānanda, from the cities and big cities are now the center of trade associations and the Aryan tribes, this new city will become the greatest city called Pāṭaliputta, a place where the goods unloaded, sold and distributed. But this city will experience danger from flood, fire and internal dissension".[83] Magadha, the capital of Pāṭliputta (modern Patna), gradually became the most powerful city in India.

In the mid-4th century BC to a Sudra named Mahāpadma Nanda usurped the throne of Magadha and became ruler of the kingdom that stretched from the river Brahmaputra in the east to the west of Beas. But on the other side of the river Beas there were several small kingdoms.

At the same time Alexander the Great ruled in Persia and crossed the Hindu Kush into Bactria (Northern Afghanistan). It took 2 years to conquer the inhospitable regions, but the time to do that, Alexander the Great founded a city which also penetrating as far North as Samarkand and Leninabad (first: in the Soviet Union). There are also other cities that have been identified in Charikar (north of Kabul). After hearing about the river Indus, Alexander the Great crossed again the Hindu Kush in 372 BC and continued to press the Taxilā (Takkasilā) in the east. But when he reached the river Jhelum, he met with the king Paurava who had war elephants. Even the veterans of Macadonia were not able to fight with an enemy like that. Alexander then forced to retreat up to the Indus River and then back through Persia where he died in Babylon in 323 BC. Nevertheless he had left the basics of the Bactrian kingdom had explored Indus River and Jhelhum.

After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta, founder of the Maurya dynasty, could expel the Greek garrison of the Indus valley. He defeated Nanda In the year 321 B.C. and ruled the kingdom of Magadha with its capital Pāṭaliputta. Alexander's successor, Seleukos I Nicator, led an expedition against the Indians in the year 311 BC in the hope of recapture of Punjab. But he blocked the power of Chandragupta. In the year 304 BC Seleukos gladly signed an agreement with Chandragupta, and gave his daughter to marry and even provide large areas, which is now the Baluchistan and Afghanistan, as a medium of exchange for 500 war elephants. Seleukos sent his ambassador, Magasthenes, to Pātaliputta. Viewed from the legacy of his writings, we learn about the size of the army and defense forces there. Chandragupta ruled for 24 years and his son Bindusara ruled for 28 years until his death in 269 BC.

At the time of death of Bindusara his eldest son was a young king in Takkasilā, while a small son, Ashoka, was the younger king in the south Ujjeni. Ashoka fought with his brother fighting over rights to the throne and his brother was killed in the battle. Asoka became ruler of a great empire, from Bengal to Afghanistan. Yet he still is not satisfied. In the ninth year of his reign, after the bloody battle of Kālinga kingdom seized (Orissa), Ashoka then left the war and became a devout follower of Buddhism. Emperor Ashoka sent missionary monks to the border areas of his empire. Many of Ashoka inscriptions have been found in the Kabul valley, written in Greek and Aramaic. Elsewhere, his inscriptions mentions that he had managed to spread the Dhamma in Egypt, Siriya, Macadonia, Greece, Cyprus, Bactria, Kashmir, Gandhāra, etc. Mahāvamsa says that many delegates were sent to Kashmir, Gandhāra, Bactria, the Himalayas, Sindh (Gujarat). Inscription on the casket of relics found in the stūpas at Sanci noted the success of the mission to the Himalayas. Unfortunately the records of other stūpas have been destroyed. But we can be sure that the mission to Kashmir and Gandhara was successful, because even at the time of the Buddha was Takkasilā was a famous center of learning. Mahāvamsa also noted that the inauguration of the Great Stūpa in the year 157 BC, the monks come from Alasanḍa (Charika) who is located in Yona (Bactria).

The rise of the Bactrian Kindom

After King Asoka died in 227 BC, the Mauryan Empire began to split. In the year 250 BC a rebellion erupted in the empire founded by Seleukos, under the leadership of its governor, Diodotus I. Empire continued to flourish under his successor, Diodotus II and Euthydemus. The Greek rulers of the new kingdom of Bactria across the Hindu Kush and began to invade India from the northwest at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. Among the Greek kings who ruled until the south of Kush, was apparently Apollodotus first king. Twice he is mentioned related to Menander. Their power grew on the southwest Ariana (southern Afghanistan) and in the South to the Indus valley.

As already mentioned above, Menander must have been in power in Kabul and Swat valley and at some time he also conquered the Indus valley. Sāgala, the city as mentioned in the Milndhaapañ as the place where the conversation took place, was the ancient city of the Madras which was the region in about the 6th century BC. Now, it is called the Sialkot city, which lies between the Chenab and Ravi Rivers, near the border of Kashmir. Milndapañha ( page 53)[84], stated that Kashmir is 12 Yojana (84 miles) distance and that Milinda’s Birth place on the Island of Alasanda is 200 Yojanas away. There are many cities founded by Alexander during the conquest, some of which may be the birthplace of Menander. A.K. Narain suggests that Menander's hometown is a city founded in Charikar, but the distance is rather less than 200 Yojana (1400 miles) with the usual calculation or maybe it was the city Alexandra located in Leninabad or one of the Alexandra cities further west?[85]

However, from the available evidence we can speculate that Menander was born in Bactria, but was brought up in Ariana (Kabul valley), and that in the early years of his reign he developed his father's empire to the Indus Valley and even further, and then maybe set up Sāgala as the capital. Unlike Bactria that was predominantly influenced by Greek culture these new areas have been Buddhists. At that time, Menander would have been educated in the Greek tradition and have had known Buddhism directly and no doubt he had often connection with the monks who lived in the kingdom. However, it seems somewhat unlikely that knowledge of the teachings of Buddhism was to be able to hold a dialogue like that in writing in the Milndapañha because Milinda seems to have a broad knowledge of the existing text. I suppose that the author know about the King Menander, and most likely he based his work on oral tradition of the conversation. Then he uses his own extensive knowledge to develop a dialogue that becomes a long work, which we have today. Maybe he uses dialogue as a tool to add interest to the treatise. And to please the Greek king, he made as one of the main character.

This hypothesis has received support from China language translation of only the first three sections of almost identical with the Pāli text of the questions, but different in the introduction. In this case, neither seemed authentic.

Six heretical teachers and their teachings

According to the Milindapañha, the King Milinda went to visit the six teachers. They are: （1） Purāna Kassapa, （2） Makkhali Gosāla, （3）Ajita Kesakambala（4） Sañjaya Bellaṭṭhiputta, （5）Pakudha Kaccāyana and （6）Niganṭha Nātaputta. However, he went to meet the first two teachers only, and the remaining four teachers were left out. It is very unusual and strange this incident, because they were contemporary thinkers of the Buddha and lived in Magadha in the sixth century B.C. According to the Buddhist literature they were known as heretical teachers. This term is impolite and improper for them. Here I mention W.Pachow’s observation about six heretical teachers and the authority of meeting of King Milinda with them:[86]

They were independent thinkers unsavory against the authority of the Vedic and Brahmanical traditions such as theism, polytheism, monotheism, the belief in soul, rebirth, sacrifice, karma, the caste system and so forth. As a result, each school proclaimed its distinctive theories either in favour of materialism or agonisticism or fatalism or atheism or other principles. It may be mentioned that Gautama Buddha was one of the teachers being associated with this movement. In the end, only Buddhism and Jainism became successful as established religions. They are still popular in India and in Asian countries.

Before discuss the topic concerning the authenticity of Milinda’s visit, it is better briefly summarize their theories and practices as follows:

（1）Purāna Kassapa- (富兰那迦叶)Pūraṇa Kassapa[87] was an Indian ascetic teacher who lived around the 5^th BCE, contemporaneous with Mahāvīra and the Buddh. Purāṇa taught a theory of "non-action" (Pāli, Skt.: akiriyavada) whereby the body acts independent of the soul, merit or demerit.[88]In the Pāli Canon, Purāna (along with the ascetic Makkhali Gosala) is identified as an ahetuvadin, "denier of a cause" (of merit).[89] He believed that any kind of good action such generosity, self-control, restraint, and truthful speech would acquire no merit. On the other hand, if anyone performed an act of mutilating or getting others to mutilate, torturing or getting others to torture, inflicting sorrow or getting others to inflict sorrow, tormenting or getting others to torment, intimidating or getting others to intimidate, taking life, stealing, breaking into houses, plundering wealth, committing burglary, committing adultery, speaking falsehood, no sin or crime was committed.[90] In other words, he did not accord recognition to morality or immorality, right action or wrong doing. This extreme form of free speech without restraint would be unacceptable in a civilized society.

（2）Makkhali Gosāla-(末伽梨拘舍梨)Makkhali was an ascetic teacher of ancient India, often identified as the founder of the Ājīvika movement. He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. He was a fatalist and believed that person’s destiny had already been predetermined by fate. Thus, no amount of good deeds such as practice of this morality and conduct, austerity, chastity could change the course of events, nor could they have any effect on one’s future birth. According to him, “All happiness and misery have been measured in the measuring basket; and the round of rebirths is in this way delimited, with no extension or reduction. When a ball of string is thrown forward, it will go as far as the length of the string allows. In like manner both the fool and the wise would wander from one existence to another as far as they can go, and ultimately make an end of the round of suffering”.[91] No one can escape.

（3 Ajita Kesakambala-(阿耆多翅舍钦婆罗)This teacher was a materialist. He believed that there is no (consequence to) alms-giving, sacrifice or oblation. This world does not exist, nor do other worlds. There is no mother, no father, (all good or evil done to them producing no result). He claimed that there is no rebirth of beings after death and its deeds. Therefore, he encouraged people to pursue happiness to its utter limit, because one might die the next day.[92] The followers of this school are generally known as Cārvakas or Lokāyatas.

（4 Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta-(珊□耶毗罗胝子)This one believed that our knowledge about the truth is inadequate in regard to an indecision . If an erroneous view was made, we would bitterly repent of such a mistake. Therefore, one should not make a judgment. His critics called him a coward. However, this agnostic approach is noticeable in early Buddhism. For instance, the Buddha refused to answer a question on metaphysical speculations, such as whether the sage would or would not exist after death, or whether the world has or has not an end.

（5）Pakudha Kaccāyana-(迦罗鸠驮迦旃延)He was an atomist, a forerunner of the Vaisheshika school. He upheld a theory of the seven elements and said “There is this group of seven which is neither made nor caused to be made, and neither created nor caused to be created. These seven are sterile, permanent as a mountain peak and firm as a gate post. They are unshakable, immutable, unable to harm one another and incapable of causing pleasure or pain or both pleasure and pain to one another. And what are those seven? They are: the body of earth, of water, of fire, of air; pleasure, pain and the soul as the seventh. He further says "These seven are neither made nor caused to be made, and neither created nor caused to be created. They are sterile, permanent as a mountain peak and firm as a gate post. They are unshakable, immutable, unable to harm one another and incapable of causing pleasure or pain or both pleasure and pain to one another. Among the seven there is neither killer nor one who causes killing, neither hearer nor one who does not cause hearing, knower or one who causes knowing. When one cuts off another's head with a sharp weapon, it does not mean that one has killed the other, for the weapon only falls through the space in between the seven."[93] It is clear that he discarded morality and social ethics, and showed no regard to human rights whatsoever.

（6） Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta-(尼干陀若提子)This teacher was named as Vardhamāna Mahāvīra, the founder of Jainism. He was a senior contemporary of the Buddha and flourished in the 5th century B.C. He had a large number of followers known as the naked ascetics. The religious life of the Jain monks is “subjected to extreme asceticism of penance and fasting, austerities in order to set their souls free of the karma already acquired.”They hold the view that an individual consists of a soul closely associated with matter. When the soul is freed from matter, one may be able to gain salvation and enjoy the bliss of emancipation. However, their notion of soul （jīva） is different from the Vedantic ātman, namely anything on earth such as trees, stones, rivers, mountains and so on are living and have a jīva. They practice the principle of ahimsā （non-violence）, vegetarianism and observe strict disciplinary rules. In regard to the theory of karma, they emphasize that the effect of evil deeds would not be terminated for ages to come, until one had suffered all the consequences.

W.Pachow says that there are some striking similarities between the two traditions, and Buddhism may have adopted many of its ideas and traditions from pre-existing ones held by the Jains. However, they were modified in order to suit the needs of the Buddhist situation.[94]

After the introduction to the six teachers and their doctrines I would like to mention here the idea of W.Pachow about the authority of meeting six heretical teachers by king milinda.

W. Pachow Says “Our principal objective here is to ascertain whether or not King Milinda had actually met with them. It is extremely doubtful that the claim could stand critical scrutiny. As this story is an imitation of a previous source, we shall refer you to an episode which occurred in Magadha in the 5th century B.C. According to the Sāmaññaphalasutta of the Dīganikāya, King Ajātasattu, son of King Bimbisāra, paid visits to the six teachers and enquired about their respective teachings. However, he was not satisfied with the response and informed the Buddha of his disappointment. We believe this was a true event, because the kings of Magadha were contemporaries of the Buddha as well as of the six teachers. At that time the soil of Magadha was fertile and her people were generous and friendly. Besides, being away from the Vedic cultural dominance, the kingdom became a center of free thinking and unconventional ventures. Thus, many intellectuals and revolutionary personalities such as the founders of Buddhism and Jainism were attracted to take up residence there. They were actively supported by King Bimbisāra and his son Ajātasattu. Eventually, some of these schools of thought became established religions.

On the contrary, the claim of Milinda’s visit to the six teachers is groundless and unsubstantiated. We shall list the following reasons in support of our argument:

（i） According to V. A. Smith, the political activities of Milinda took place around 160-140 B.C. In terms of time-counting, the date of Milinda’s birth was several hundred years after the six teachers had lived their lives and passed away. Could anyone enjoy longevity of three or four hundred years from the 5th to the 2nd century B.C.? As we have not yet seen such a precedent, our answer is in the negative.

（ii） The six teachers used to live in the vicinity of Pāṭaliputta （Patna） in Magadha, and the capital of Milinda was in Sāgala （modern Sialkot）. The distance between the two cities is several hundred miles apart. How did he travel to Magadha, by plane or by vehicle? If he did not go there by an aero plane at that time, then, the visit to these teachers was pure invention.

（iii） We are informed by this text that King Milinda could meet with two of the six teachers, namely Purāna Kassapa and Makkhali Gosāla. He humiliated them, as they could not respond to the complicated questions. This gives us the impression that they used to reside at the same place, but it was not so. Therefore, he could not have seen them immediately one after the other.

（iv） The Chinese translation known as Nā-shian bī-chiou jing《那先比丘經》 does not mention the said episode at all. It is most likely that an interpolation was made at a much later time.

The facts noted above suggest eloquently that the visit to the six teachers was pure fabrication. However, there might be a motivation behind it. One may suggest that although King Milinda had humiliated the six teachers, and other Buddhist leaders in refutation, ultimately Nāgasena conquered Milinda by means of eloquence and learning. Therefore, Nāgasena was the best teacher among men.”[95]

Debate between King Milinda and Nāgasena

In this Part I hope to discuss the biography of King Milinda and Nāgasena as it is mentioned in Milindapañha according to their past karma up to the debate between King Milinda and Nāgasena because it quite interesting to mention here. We don’t have enough historical details about Nāsena’s present life. Milindapañha has mentioned the previous birth stories of Milinda and Nāgasena thus:

Once in the land of the Greeks (Ionians literally, Pāli: Yonaka, this was the common term in India, the Bactrian Greeks) there was a city named Sāgala. It was a manifold hub for trade, located in a charming landscape, adorned with rivers and mountains, rich in parks, gardens, groves, lakes and ponds “Atha ayaṃ atthi yonakānaṃ nānāpuṭabhedanaṃ Sāgalaṃ nāma nagaraṃ nadīpabbatasobhitaṃ ramaṇīyabhūmippadesabhāgaṃ ārāmauyyāno pavanataḍāga pokkharaṇisampannaṃ nadīpabbatarāmaṇeyyakaṃ”[96]

This city was originally built by experienced men and was not threatened by the danger of their enemies, since they were subjected before. Also, the city had many strong towers and walls, proud and stately gates and archways. Deep trenches and whitewashed walls surrounded the palace. The streets, yards, cross paths and places were arranged admirably. The markets were filled with manifold precious goods, which were designed beautiful. And the city was blessed with many hundreds of alms halls and was emblazoned on hundreds and thousands of stately homes, which rose up like mountain peaks of the Himalayas in the air. In the streets there was a crowd of elephants, horses, chariots and soldiers, and beautiful men and women wandered. Densely populated the area was inhabited by many nobles, Brahmins, citizens and servants. Everywhere we heard resound welcome calls to ascetics and priests of many schools.

Yes, the city Sāgala was the rallying point of many great and wise men with manifold knowledge. There are many shops for sale Benares muslin of koṭumbara stuff and other various kinds of clothes. And the entire city the smell permeated the shops with their flowers and perfumes, tastefully on display. Jewels are there in plenty, there and a lot of stately merchants lived there with in all directions beautifully arranged goods. The city was full of money, gold and with silver ware, brass and precious stones, a veritable mountain of shining treasures, full of abundance of money and grain, goods and chattels, and filled with many department stores. Since there were many food and sweets, treats, drinks and juices. Yes, the whole town was like Uttarakuru (a mythical land of prosperity is), and it was rich in grain as Ālakamandā, the divine city!

Here we must first stop and report the relationship between prenatal Milinda and Nagasana. Here the surprising thing is previous kamma (pubbayoga-pubbakamma)of Milinda explained by venerable Nāgasena himself.

Long ago when The Kassapa Buddha was promulgating the doctrine, there lived a large group of monks near the Ganges in a monastery. There was the perfect fulfillment of the provisions in the rules and customs of monks in the habit of getting up quite early in the morning. Then they used long-handled broom to sweep the monastery and return to the dirt in a pile together, meditating the while on the virtues of the Buddha.

One day it happened that a monk, a novice called with a request to carry away the dirt. The novice, however, went further and acted as if he heard nothing. And also called for the second and third time, he acted as if he heard nothing and went quietly on his way. But as the monk because of the recalcitrance of that novice became angry and struck him a blow with a broom handle this time, not daring to refuse, he set about the task crying; and as he did so he muttered to himself this first aspiration. It was the novice, this first request: "Oh, I would like a result of this good work that I perform by the removal of dirt, all the while until they enter the redemption (Nibbāna), at which place and will always, I reborn be equal to the midday sun of great power and great glory! "

Then he went to the river side of the Ganges to bathe. But the moment he then perceived the murmuring of waves of the Ganges, he said this second request: "Oh, I would like for the whole period until the admission to the redemption, in whatever place and will always, I born again, this wave just as each ascended problem spontaneous repartee have!”

Even the monk, after he had put the broom in the shed, went to the beach of the Ganges to bathe. But just when he arrived he heard the words of the novices, and he thought to himself: "If this man, inspired by me, are hoping such may, why should I not succeed then, too?" And he said the following request: “Oh, I would like for the whole period until the admission to the redemption, in whatever place and will always, I reborn, even as these waves are an infallible, quick-witted speaker and the administration have, any problem that I face this novice, to unravel and solve! "

Now, while these two gods and men under the round by being hasty, they went through the whole time that can elapse between the births of two enlightened. And just like the Order of Elder Tissa, the Moggali son (Moggaliputta-Tissa) were, so also they perceived even by our supreme master who prophesied of them the following: "Five hundred years after my passing away ( Nibbāna), these two re-appear in the world, and out profound teachings (Dhamma) and Discipline (Vinaya)taught by me, they are means of questioning and the use of parables to explain, reveal and deal".

Of the two the novice became the King of the city of Sāgala in India, named Milinda. He was a wise, experienced, insightful and capable ruler. He observed exactly the time for compliance with all the devotion and religious rites, the past, present or future things concerned. Many science he had learned, as to: the tradition, the conventional law, the Sānkya, Yoga, Nyāya and Vaiseshika philosophy, arithmetic, music, medicine, the four Vedas, the Purānas and History, astronomy, magic , logic, causation, war art, poetry and sign of language, in a word whole nineteen sciences. In all religious founders, he was regarded as the greatest orator and as an incomparable, invincible enemy. And in India there was not one that would be tantamount to King Milinda in physical strength, speed, heroism and knowledge. Moreover, mighty in wealth and prosperity, and his forces were almost immeasurable.

One day the king had a desire and proceeded forth out of the city to pass in review the innumerable host of his mighty army troops in its four fold array (of elephants, cavalry, bowmen, and soldiers on foot). And when the numbering of the forces was over, the king, who was fond of wordy disputation, eager to engage in discussions with philosophers, sophists and other thinkers – looked at the Sun and said to his ministers: "It's still early days. What would be the use of getting back to town so early? Is there no a learned person, whether ascetic or priest, which the head of a school or group of disciples, (even though he profess faith in the Arahat, the Fully-Enlightened Ones) who would be able to discuss with me and solve my doubt?"

Thereupon the five hundred Yonakas(Greeks) said to King Milinda: " 'There are the six Masters, O king!. Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Nigantha Nāthaputta, Sanjaya Belatthaputta, Ajita Kesakambalī and Pakudha Kaccāyana[97] are the leaders of the community and younger crowd, teachers of a group of disciples, recognized and celebrated as religious founders and highly respected by the people. Go, great King! And put them your, and have your doubts resolved.”

So the King Milinda attended by five hundred yonakas (Greeks) mounted his splendid horse and went out to the dwelling place of Purāna Kassapa. He greeted him and having exchanged friendly and courteous words with him and sat down in one side and asked questions: After, the King Milinda went to Makkhali Gosāla. But he was not satisfied with their answers.

Then thought Milinda the king within himself and exclaimed: "Truly, this is void, but India! It is like an empty shell. Because there is no one here among the ascetics and priests, who would be able to discuss with me and solve my doubts “ tucco vata bho Jaṃbudīpo palāpo vata bho Jaṃbudīpo. Natthi ko ci samaṇo vā brāhmaṇovā so maya saddiṃ sallapituṃ sakkoti kańkaṃ paṭivinodetuṃ! "[98]

Thereupon the King turned to his advisers: "This is lovely moonlit night! What ascetics or priests, we may still seek to question him? Who will be able to have discussed with me and solve my doubts? "

After hearing these words, the councilors of the king were in silence, and stood there gazing upon the face of the King.

Now at that time the city Sāgala already had for twelve years been, without any scholarly ascetics, priests or laymen. But wherever the king heard that such persons living, he go there and put his questions on them. Since they were all but been unable to satisfy the king with their solutions to the problems they were here and depart there. But those who had not gone in a different area were silent. Most of the monks, however, had retreated to the Himalayas.

At that time, countless saints lived on the "protected area" on the slopes of the Himalayas an innumerable company of Arahants. And the Venerable Assagutta, the means of his ability of Heavenly Ear (Dibba-sota, behold abhiñña) heard the word of King Milinda. Ane he congreate an assembly of the order on the summit of the Yugandhara Mountain, and asked the monks, is there any one of the community capable to discuss with the King Milinda and resolve his doubts. On this question, they all were silent. And also asked a second time and third time, all acted dumb. Then the venerable Assagutta said to the Bhikkhus: "There is, my friends, in the heaven of thirty-three, to the east of the Vejayanta palace, a mansion called Ketumati. There lives a son of the gods, with the name of Mahāsena who has the ability to discuss with the King Milinda and solve his doubt. "Then all the Arahants vanished from the Yugandhara Mountain and appeared in the heaven of thirty-three.

Sakka, king of the gods, saw those monks approaching from a far. And he went to meet the venerable Assagutta, greeted him with reverence and stood aside. Standing to the side said The Sakka, king of the gods, the venerable Assagutta: 'Great, reverend Sir, a huge crowd of monks arrived here! I am at the service of the community. What do you want? What could I do? "

And the venerable Assagutta said Sakka, the king of the gods:” There is, O king, in the city of Sāgala in India a King Milinda by name, unsurpassed, invincible orator, all religious founders regarded as the greatest opponent. He has the habit to visit the monks and to harass them by questions of speculative import. "

And Sakka, king of the gods, said: "That same King Milinda, Venerable one, left once from here and was born again among men. In the Ketumatī-castle, there lives a divine son named Mahāsena that has the ability to discuss with the King Milinda and resolve his doubts. Let us request him to rebirth in the human world! "

Then The Sakka, king of the gods, he was preceded by the monastic community, entered the Ketumatī-castle, there he embraced Mahāsena, the son of the gods, and said:

“Dear, monastic community request of you-to be rebirth in the human world."

"I have no desire to the world of men, O Lord, where there is much (sorry-creating) work (literally" with a lot of kamma”). Terrible is the human world! I would like, O Lord, reach for the reincarnation in ever higher spheres, in the very gods the complete redemption. Asked for the second time and third time by Sakka, the king of the gods, Mahāsena, the son of God, gave the same answer.

Thereupon the venerable Assagutta addressed Mahāsena, the son of the gods, and said: "We have explored the whole world of gods and men, Lord, but no others have found except you, who are able to do to refute the heretical views of King Milinda. The whole order, O worthy one, invites you to rebirth in the human world, in order to lend to the religion of the Blessed One your powerful service.”

By these words, Mahāsena, the son of God, filled with joy and enthusiasm - in fact the idea that he would be able to refute the claims of King Milinda and thus be a savior of the doctrine. He now gave his consent and said. "Well, sir, I will re-appear in the human world"

Thus, as the monks had finished their task, they disappeared from the heaven of thirty-three and went on the "protected area" on the slopes of the Himalayas again in appearance. And the venerable Assagutta addressed the monastic community and said, is there any one of the monks belonging to this community, who has not presented at the meeting.

After these words one of the monks said to the Venerable Assagutta that the venerable Rohana had a week ago gone in the Himalayan mountains and there in the (meditative) state of extinction (nirodha, stands for the term as "the cessation of perception and feeling" (Saññā-vedayita -nirodha) a temporary state of deep meditation, contemplation, see nirodha-Samapatti) had sunk, and that we should therefore send a messenger to him.

And at that very moment the venerable Rohana aroused from the extinction condition felt that the community was waiting for him. And he disappeared so soon from the Himalayan Mountains and entered on the "protected area” and appeared in the presence of innumerable community of the order.

And the venerable Assagutta said to him: "Do not you know? Venerable Rohana, now that the teaching of the Enlightened One is on the decay and danger in the town. Have you no eyes for the work of the order?"

"I had not thought of, Venerable sir."

"Then, Venerable Rohana you have to make atonement for it."

And what do I have there, sir? "

"On the slopes of the Himalayas, Venerable Rohana, there is a BrahmaVillage called Kajañgala. There lives a Brahmin named Sonuttara. He will have a son, named Nāgasana. You should go that house for seven years and ten months for alms. Then you should draw away the young Nāgasana out of the house and cause him to enter into the order as a novice. And when that will be drawn away into homelessness, you shall be freed from your guilt."

"All right!" Agreed with the Venerable Rohana.

Meanwhile, Mahāsena, son of the gods, passed away from the heaven of thirty-three and was reborn in the womb of the wife of the Brahmin Sonuttara. And at the moment of his conception is known that three wonderful, extraordinary phenomena took place: all armories lit up, the young seeds were ripe in a moment, and a great rain (during the dry season) flows down. The venerable Rohana went that house seven years and ten months for alms from the day of Mahāsena’s rebirth. But not in a single day, he received even just a spoonful of rice or a bowl of coconut soup or a greeting or a greeting hand, or any sort of salutation. No, nothing but contempt and ridicule he earned. Even not a single one said from the usual request to continue the alms. But at the end of seven years and ten months he one day happened to have those very words address to him. "! be so good’ sir, please, go to the next house" (This is the usual closing formula with which one refers to the waiting for alms monk to the next door, if you just has no food prepared or not willing to give such) just on that day, the Brāhmin on his way back from his work in the field, and he saw the venerable Rohana as he met on his return, he asked: recluse h house.ve you been to our house?

"Yes, Brahmin," I have.

"And did you get anything?"

"Yes, Brahmin, I got something."

Then he went into his house full of anger and asked if they had given to the monk something. "No," it said. "We have given nothing."

Thereupon the Brāhmaṇa, the next day he seated before his door, thinking to himself. “Today I want to humiliate the monk for his lie" And the next day, Elder monk came back to the front door of the Brahmins. But no sooner had he seen the Brahmin, he even said to him: "You've yesterday claimed to have gotten something in our house, not the least you've got. Thus, the lying is probably allowed to you? "

The Elder said: "During the seven years and ten months, no one even went so far as to suggest politely that I should pass on: "But yesterday I got the words to hear. And just with respect to these polite words such I have said. "

As the Brahmin thought: "These monks are talking only because of a simple, polite word, they get to hear from the people under their appreciation by saying that they have received something. what will they not do if they got really some food? "And full of joy he had him about the rice that was prepared for him personally, proffering a spoonful of as charity, together with the corresponding portion vegetables, saying: ". This gift, O Lord you shall receive every day," As soon as he now had the peace of mind of the religious elders of the following days from always had observed, he found more and more pleasure to him and asked him to be from now regularly present at the distribution of alms in his house. The Order gave the consent in silence. And every day when he had finished his meal and was about to leave, he pronounce a short passage or short statement of the enlightened ones.

Now the wife of the Brahmin had, after the lapse of ten months, brought forth her son and they gave the name Nāgasana. Gradually grew the same approach and reached the age of seven. And the father of the young Nāgasana spoke to his son. "You should now prefer to train Nāgasana, in the studies of this Brahmin caste"

"What is this, Father?"

The three Vedas are called learning (sikhā), the other kinds of knowledge are only arts, Nāgasena.

"I want to learn my dear father’, said him."

And the Brahmin Soṇuttara gave to a Brahman teacher one thousand pieces of money as a teaching salary, and left in a solitary room in the interior of the house dressing chairs and said to the Brāhman teacher: "Brāhman, teach this boy the sacred hymns by heart!"

And the Brāhmanic recited the sacred hymns and let them learn by heart the boy. And even after a single recitation of the young Nāgasana already knew the three Vedas by heart, he could repeat word for word, they had kept well, well preserved in the memories, well considered in the spirit. And all by itself, he won an insight into the three Vedas, along with the lexicography, the morphology, the grammar and the fifth was legends attaching to the characters in them. And he was familiar with the words and grammar, well-versed in the theory of nature and the characteristics of a great man.

As the young Nāgasana said to his father: "Is there anything more to learn in this Brahmin caste or is this all?"

"No, this is all Nāgasana."

And young Nāgasana repeated his lessons to the teacher for the last time, he left the house, and inspired as a result of an innate tendency from an inner impulse, he hurried to the loneliness. And while he was there meditating, he began to think about the beginning, the middle and the end of what he had learnt. As he noted, by rethinking of the Vedas neither the beginning nor the middle nor the end of it the lowest value was, and he became very sad and unhappy, and thought, "These Vedas are void, same as empty shells. There is in them neither reality, nor worth, nor essential truth!'
The venerable Rohana, who was at that moment in the Vaṭṭānīya hermitage recognized in the spirit of the thoughts of the young Nāgasana. He dressed himself, disappeared from the Vaṭṭānīya hermitage and came with alms bowl and in his hand and appeared near the Brāhmin village Kajańgala. And the young Nāgasana as he stood again in the doorway saw Venerable Rohana coming in the distance. At the sight of him he became happy and joyful. And with delight and joy, he thought that perhaps this monk know something genuinely meaningful. And he went up to the venerable Rohana and spoke to him saying: "Who are you, O Lord; you have your hair shorn and wearing yellow robes.

"They call me a recluse, oh my child."[99]

"For what reason they call you one who has abandoned?"

"Because I'm gone away from home to escape the filth of vice: therefore, my boy, they call me a recluse."
"For what reason, however, Lord wearing, you have no hair like everyone else?"
"In view of the following sixteen distractions, my boy, I have shaved hair and beard. These are the adornment of the hair, the impediments of ornamenting it, lubricating, washing and use of flowers, fragrant substances and ointments, yellow and black Myrobalan seeds, coloring, tying and combing the hair, calling in a barber, the combing of nodes and the vermin. And when their hair falls off, one is full of sorrow and torments himself; it wails and beats his chest and falls into despair. Yes, neglecting my boy, the people who are involved in these sixteen distractions, parts of wisdom. "

"For what reason, however, Lord carries you no clothes as the others?"

"The beautiful clothes, my boy, are associated with sensuality: they stimulate the senses and are the hallmark of living in the world. But one, who clothed with the yellow dress, is not exposed to the dangers that arise, according to the secular clothes. For this reason, I do not wear clothes like everyone else. "

"You know well, O Lord, what is real knowledge?"

"Yes, my boy, I know the real knowledge and what is in the world the highest knowledge or best hymn, even I know.[100]

"Could you give it to me too, O Lord confides that knowledge?"

"Yes, my boy, I can."

"So do, please!"

"Now is not the time, my boy, for I have just started doing my alms in the village."

Then the young Nāgasana took the alms bowl from the hands of the venerable Rohana, and bade him enter the house. There he entertained the venerable Rohana, supplied by his own hand with selected hard and soft food. And when he saw that he had finished his meal, and withdrawn his hand from the bowl, the young Nāgasana turned to him and said: "Trust me now, sir, will you teach me that hymn?’

'When you have become free from impediments, my child, by taking upon thee, and with your parents' consent, the hermit's dress I wear, then I can teach it you.'
And the young Nāgasana went immediately back to his parents and said to them: "Dear parents, 'This recluse says he knows the best hymn in the world, but that he cannot teach it to anyone who has not entered the Order as his pupil. I would like to enter the Order and learn that hymn."

"And they gave him their consent; for they wished him to learn the hymn, even at the cost of retiring from the world; and they thought that when he had learned it he would come back again.

Then the venerable Rohana took the young Nāgasana and went with him to the hermitage in Vaṭṭānīya Vijambha-Vatthu. After he had spent the night there, he went to the "protected area" and took the young Nāgasana in the presence of the many saints. Young Nāgasena was admitted, as a novice, into the Order he said, the venerable Nāgasana, the venerable Rohana: "I have accepted your clothes, sir. Now teach me that hymn! "

And the venerable Rohana thought thus to himself: "What should I probably Nāgasana teach first, in the discourses (suttanta) or philosophical texts (Abhidhamma)?" He saw that Nāgasana was smart and capable, and could master philosophical texts with great ease, so he decided to teach him first in it. And even after a single recitation, the venerable Nāgasana knew the whole collection of philosophical works by heart.[101]

And the venerable Nagasana said: "That's enough Sir! You need not recite again, that will suffice for my being able to rehearse it.'
And the venerable Nagasana went to the innumerable company of Arahants and said. "Venerable, I want the whole collection of philosophical theories (Abhidhamma Piṭaka) without abridgement, arranging it under the three points of good, bad, and indifferent qualities.'

Then the venerable Nagasana left them and in seven months, recited comprehensively all seven books of Abhidhamma. And the earth thundered, the deities shouted their applause, the Brahmas clapped their hands, and heavenly bright Mandārawa flowers and heavenly sweet scented sandal wood dust rained down. So when the venerable Nagasana had reached in his twentieth year had reached, gave him the innumerable multitude of saints on the "protected area" the full monastic ordination.[102]

Time and Place of Compilation of Milindapañha

According to Rhys Davids Milindapañha is a translation. It was translated at a very early date into Pāli. He comes to this idea according to the preface of Sinhalese translation entitled Milinda Prasṇaya. It states that the celebrated discussion held between Milinda and Nāgasena, about 500 years after the death of the Buddha, was translated into the Māgadhī language by 'teachers of old' (purwākārin wisin).[103] The Pāli version was translated into Sinhalese, at the instance and under the patronage of King Kīrti Srī Rāja-siṃha, who came to the throne of Ceylon in the year of Buddha 2290 (1747 A. D.).[104] The scholar Tarn agrees with Rhys Davids about the place of compilation of this book but disagree with the date of compilation. Tarn says “He (the author) is supposed to have written in Northwestern India …not too long after Menander’s death”, and Tarn further says Menander’s death happened between 150-145 B.C.[105] Japanese scholar Kogen Mizuno holds a similar idea as that of Tarn, citing the corresponding evidence of references to Milinda’s dialogues with venerable Nāgasena within commentaries of Buddhaghosa. Rhys David has mentioned in the introduction of his translation of Milindapañha about this fact. But Mizuno suppose that the Sinhalese commentarial tradition is much older, and that the four references quoted by Buddhist scholar monks who lived in second century B.C. are from the beginning of the Christian era. Therefore Mizuno comes to the conclusion that the original text must have been composed in its native land no later than the first century B.C.[106] t Oskar Von Hinuber believes that the earliest part of the book has been written between 100 B.C and 200 A.D.[107] he further says “It is generally accepted by scholars[108] that the work is composite, with additions made over some time. In support of this, it is noted that the Chinese versions of the work are substantially shorter”.[109] Winternitz has mentions “has lived at a time when people’s memory of the Greek king was still fresh. But as there was an end of Greek rule over India soon after the death of Menandros, it can be hardly presumed that he would have been remembered for more than one century. Accordingly the work might have been composed by about the beginning of the Christian era.” Thus, the original text must have been written between 150B.C. to 50 A.D.

The Language of the Original text

It is not easy to find the language of the original text. According to many scholars Pāli version is not the original text. Rhys Davids says Pāli version is a translation written in Sanskrit or in some North Indian Prākrit.[110] According to Dutt the original language of Milindapañha was Sanskrit.[111] Sarvāstivāda School used Sanskrit language for the Tripiṭaka as their own language. Winternitz, J.Redher, Demieville and Pelliot are also in the same opinion.[112] I.B. Horner says “I imagine, then, that the two men conversed in Prākrit, and that the scribe took down his notes in that tongue, and in it wrote them out more fully afterwards.” She further mentions that the dialogues between King Milinda and Nāgesena were translated into Sanskrit later. It is better to examine the situation of Buddhist sūtras and how they were transmitted in the 2^nd century B.C.

The Buddha preached the doctrine by using a dialect in India. It can be mentioned here, that definitely it was not Sanskrit language because The Buddha opposed to use the Sanskrit language. One day two monks came to The Buddha and requested him to translate the Buddha’s word into Sanskrit. The Buddha refused and granted them to study The Buddhism in their own languages. “anujānāmi bhikkhave sakāya niruttiya Buddhavacanaṃ pariyāpuṇituṃ”[113]“ettha saka niruttināma sammā saṃbuddhena vuttappakāro Māgadhiko vohāro”[114] There are many ideas among the scholars. According to the Sri Lanka Theravāda tradition it is called Pāli or Māgadhī and sometimes it is named Suddhamāgadhī in order to distinguish from Ardha māgadhī, the language of Jaina texts. Māgadhi is the language of Magadha or the language of region where the Buddhism has arisen. According to this argument, Buddhist tradition further claims that that the Theravāda Pāli Tripiṭaka was composed in the language used by the Buddha himself to preach sermons.

This language policy against the use of Sanskrit language in Buddhsit Sūtras was changed after several centuries of the Buddha emancipation. According to the opinion of Ji Xianlin, renaissance of the Sanskrit language started in the 2^nd century B.C. He says: “the Sanskrit renaissance is closely connected with the expansion of the Maurya Empire. Emperor Asoka used to use Addhamāgadhi as his official language; probably he met some difficulties later. The successors of Emperor Asoka and religious people wanted to find out a language which could be accepted by the people throughout the great empire. Sanskrit was the ideal language. It is like the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, who unified language and writing etc. for the purpose of ruling the whole empire. It is also generally accepted that Sanskrit renaissance started in second century B.C. in India. The author of The Yoga-sāstra, Patañjali, was born during that period, and the advent of The Great Commentary indicates the rising of Sanskrit. At this time, Sanskrit became more and more influential, so that the orally transmitted Prākrit Sūtras among different schools and different regions now gradually started to be Sanskritised”.[115]

Ji Xianlin further says that translation of Buddhist Sūtras into Sanskrit happened gradually. In spite of, not all Buddhist Sūtras have been translated into Sanskrit, with the Pāli canons as one conspicuous absence example. But Roth Says that translation of Buddhist Sūtras happened during the 1^st century B.C. to 1^st century A.D.[116] Michael’s opinion also the same. He says “In the early centuries CE, first in the north and later in the south, Sanskrit became the only accepted language both for administration and for learned communication. The Buddhist Asvaghosa (second century CE) is a significant figure in the process”.[117]

As it is mentioned above, according to the Theravāda tradition, the Pāli tripiṭaka was written down during the time of King Waṭṭagāmiṇī Abhaya 89-77 B.C. Many scholars accept this as a historical incident but Ji Xianlin holds a different opinion. He says “Buddhist Sūtras written down in its original land might be a little earlier than this, about the end of the second century BCE.”[118] There is another notion that writing of Buddhist Sūtras and their translation into Sanskrit happened in the same time.[119] K.R. Norman says “We cannot tell how long the official Bhānaka sort of oral tradition and the written continued side by side, but it was perhaps not very long”.[120] Norman further says that writing down also had an effect upon the content of the Pāli Tripiṭaka because we don’t know whether it was complete or it was in the form in which we find it today, or not, and we may well wonder whether any text contain any thing which would enable us to identify it as material added after the canon have been committed to writing.[121] Norman supposes the process of Sanskritisation remained incomplete, but there nothing further was done after the Theravāda canon had been written down. But according to the explanations of given in the commentaries show the canons were not fixed absolutely by the process of writing down.[122]Enigmatically, writing down of the Theravāda tripiṭakai presumed to have stopped the further Sanskritisation of Pāli and prevented the new insertion of suttas into the nikāyas. But it was possible to accept other texts. At the time of King Asoka Prākrit was very popular but after his death Sanskrit language began to regain its position of predominance.

As mentioned above the conversation between King Milinda and Nāgasena must have happened during the latter part of 2^nd century to 1^st century B.C. King Milinda lived in this period. Scholars believe that this book could have been written not too long after the Menander’s death. It can be suggested that the author of Milindapañha must have lived in the time of Sanskrit renaissance. Therefore most probably the earliest version of this book could have been written in Sanskrit language.[123]

[1] .K.R.Norman, A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai lectures 1994,p90.

[2] . Dhammasamgīti is the term for assembly of the church, council. The original meaning is general recitation of the canonical texts which, indeed, takes place in an assembly of the church and in the following manner: an eminent thera recites the texts sentence by sentence and the assembly repeats them after him in chorus. In this way dhammasamgiti is connected with dhammasamgaha, by which we understand a settling or redaction of the canonical texts, which also can only be carried out in the manner stated.Comp. J.P.T.S. 1909, pp.31, 32.

[3] . T. W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha (London, 1910)p.184.

[4] . Mahāparinibbānasutta, Dīganikāya

[5] . Cullavaggapāli, Ed., Bentara Saddhatissa, p. 405

[6] .Atthasālini, Dhammasańghaṇī Aṭṭhakathā

[7] .Samantapasādika Vinayaṭṭhakathā

[8] .Cullavaggapāli,Sattasatikakkhandaka, (i). Singilonakappa盐姜合共宿（盐姜允许储下供日后使用）-, or the practice of storing salt in a horn. This practice is contrary to Pācittiya 38 which prohibits the storage of food.(ii). Dvańgulakappa-两指抄食（比丘原定正午前进食，但如果中午太阳的影子过二个指头时进食还可算正午食）, practice of having meals when the shadow is to fingers broad of mid-day. This is against Pācittiya 37 which forbids the taking of food after midday(iii). Gāmantarakappa-趣聚落食（食后，还可到附近村落再吃）,the practice of going to another village and taking a second meal there on the same day. This is opposed to pācittiya 35 which forbids over-eating.(iv). Āvāsakappa-复座食（吃完了，还可再坐就食）observance of the Uposatha ceremonies in various places in the same parish. This practice contravenes the Mahāvagga rules of residence in a parish (sīma).(v). Anumatikappa-求听（僧团有事需大家商量，但有些场合，可先作，事后再求承诺）the carrying out of an official act when the assembly is incomplete and obtaining approval for a deed after it is done. (vi). Ācinnakappa-习先所习（出家前所习的东西在出家以后仍可学习）, following practices as precedents (tutor or teacher). This practice is in contravention of pācittiya 35 which prohibits over-eating.(vii). Amathitakappa-酥油蜜石蜜和酪（不到时候，也能吃酥油、蜜、糖和奶酪）the drinking of buttermilk after meals. This practice is in contravention of pācittiya 35 (viii). Jalogim-patum-饮阇楼伽酒（比丘在有病时，可吃一些经发酵的酒）the drinking of toddy. This practice is opposed to pācittiya 51 which forbids the drinking of intoxicants.(ix). Adasakaṃ-nisidanaṃ-作座具随意大小（比丘坐具可随意大小）,using a rug which has no fringe. This is contrary to pācittiya 89 which prohibits the use of borderless sheets.(x). Jātarūparajataṃ-受蓄金银钱（可以受蓄金银财物）此次结集以律藏为主，订定跋耆族比丘所行之十事为非法,the acceptance of gold and silver which is forbidden by rule 18 of the Nissaggiya-pacittiya.

[9] .Dīpavaṃsa

[10] .Samantapāsādikā vinaya Aṭuwawa

[11] . Bareau, Les premiers conciles botiddhiiques, pp. 115-II8.

[12] .,P.V.Bapath,2500 years of Buddhism

[13] .Mahāvaṃsa verse,280

[14] .Dīpavaṃsa,Capter VII, 37-44 verses

[15] .Chapter One − Origin and Expansion of Buddhism by Ven. J.Kashyap. Chapter Two − The Fundamental Principles of TheravadaBuddhism by Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila. The Path of the Buddha editedby Kenneth W. Morgan. Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1986.

[16] .Indian Buddhism (Chapters One & Ten), A.K. Warder, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi 2000.

[17] .Bhikku.Thich minhthanh,A study of the Concept of Citta as Depicted in the Pāli Tripiṭaka,p33.

[18] .Pārājikapāli

[19] .Pācittiyapāli

[20] .Mahāvaggapāli

[21] .Cullavaggapāli

[22] .B.C.Law, History of Pali literature,p18

[23] . T.W.Rhys Davids.The history and literature of Buddhism, Susil Gupta Ltd, Culcutta,1952 p40.

[24] . G.C.Pande, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers,Pvt,Ltd.Delhi,1995,p19.

[25] .T.W.Rhys Davids,The history and literature of Buddhism,pp40-41

[26] Ibid, pp,41-42

[27] .K.T.S.Sarao,p31.

[28] .K.T.S.Saro,The Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian Buddhism,Eastern Book Linkers,India1989,p30.

[29] .Milindapanha, dialogue between king Milinda and Ven.Nāgasena,1^st or 2^nd century A.D.

[30] .B.C. Law,History of Pāli Literature Vol.1, Indological Book House,Vārānasi,1983,p27.

[31] .Udumbarikasīhanādasutta,Dīghanikāya

[32] .Majjhimanikāya, Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta,

[33] .Samantapāsadikā

[34] .Kenneth Roy Norman, Pāli Literature,Otto Harrassowitz,Weisbaden, 1983,pp 49-50.

[35] .The Book of the Kindred Sayings, tr. Mrs. C.A.F. Rhys Davids and F.L. Woodward, pp v-viii

[36] .B.C.Law.History of Pāli Literature,Vol.1 Indological book House,Vārānasi,1983,p32.

[37] .Milindapñho, Mahāvaggo,Sappakkhandanalakkhanasaddhapañho,

[38] .Ibid,Anumānavaggo,Anumānapañho.

[39] .Atthasālini Nidānakathā.

[40] . A textual and Historical Analysis of the Khuddaka Nikaya – Oliver Abeynayake, First Edition – 1984, p. 113.

[41] .G.C.Pande, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers,Pvt,Ltd.Delhi,1995,p48.

[42] . B.C.Law, History of pāli Literature,Vol.1,Indological Book House,Vārānasi,1983,P28,K.L.Hazra,Pāli language and literature,Vol.1,D.K.Print work,Delhi,1994,p159

[43] .K.T.S.Sarao,The Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian Buddhism,Earstern Book Linkers,India,1989,p30.

[44] .Atthasālini Nidānakatha

[45] .Sumangalavilāsini Nidānakathā

[46] . Sumańgalavilāsinī Nidānakatha

[47] .Ibid

[48] .Sumańgalavilāsini,pratamabhāga,PTS

[49] . A History of Indian Buddhism, Hirakawa Akira, translated and edited by Paul Groner, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p 128.

[50] .Ibid

[51] .B.C.Law,History of pāli Literature,Vol.1,Indological Book House,Vārānasi,1983,p14

[52] .Ibid,pp 10-11

[53] .Atthasālini,

[54] .Sumańgalavilāsini

[55] .Cullavaggapāli

[56] . B.C. Law, Chronology of Pāli canon, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research institute, Poona,190 pp.171-201

[57] .Sumańgalavilāsinī,

[58] .Prof.Baladeva Upādyāya,Buddhist Philosophy,Translated by Hiripitiye Paññākitti,S.Godage and Brothers,Colombo,1994,pp159-162

[59] .Keneth Roy Norman,Pāli Literature,Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983,p107.

[60] .History Pāli Literature,Translation, Hiripitiye Paññākitthi,S.Godage Brothers,Colombo,2003,p350.

[61] .K.R.Norman, P.L, P96.

[62] . Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula, pub Gordon Fraser, London, 1980

[63] . Indian Buddhism,3rd edn, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2000

[64] . Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XXVIII

[65]. T.W. Rhys Davids, The Question of King Milinda,Part 1,Introduction,1890,p

[66] .Nagasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation,Vol.1,Venerable Guang Xing, SHYH HYAH INTERNATIONAL CO., LTD.Taiwan 2008

[67] .Ibid

[68] . Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA),Taisho Tripitaka,vol.32:nos.1670A,1670B,pp694-719.

[69] . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Shigao- An Shigao (Chinese: 安世高) (in the Wade-Giles transcription system, An Shih-kao) (C.E168) was a prince of Parthia, nicknamed the "Parthian Marquis", who renounced his prospect as a contender for the royal throne of Parthia in order to serve as a Buddhist missionary monk.
The prefix An in An Shigao's name is an abbreviation of Anxi, the Chinese name given to the regions ruled by the Arsacids. Most visitors from that country who took a Chinese name received a prefix to indicate their Anxi origin.
In 148, An Shigao arrived in China at the Han Dynasty capital of Luoyang, where he produced a substantial number of translations of Indian Buddhist texts and attracted a devoted community of followers. More than a dozen works by An Shigao are currently extant, including texts dealing with meditation, Abhidharma, and basic Buddhist doctrines. An Shigao's corpus does not contain any Mahāyāna scriptures, though he himself is regularly referred to as a "bodhisattva" in early Chinese sources. Scholarly studies of his translations have shown that they are most closely affiliated with the Sarvāstivāda School.
An Shigao is the first Buddhist translator to be named in Chinese sources. Another Anxi translator, a layman named An Xuan, worked in Luoyang (together with a Chinese collaborator, Yan Fotiao) slightly after An Shigao's time, producing a translation of a Mahāyāna scripture, the Ugraparipṛcchā-sūtra (in Chinese, the Fajing jing, Taishō no. 322) c. 181 CE.

[70] . Nagasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation,Vol.1,Venerable Guang Xing, SHYH HYAH INTERNATIONAL CO., LTD.Taiwan 2008

[71] . Nagasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation, Vol.1, Venerable Guang Xing, SHYH HYAH INTERNATIONAL CO., LTD.Taiwan 2008.

[72] .Question of King Milind,Translated from the Pāli,T.W.Rhys Davids,Part 1,introduction,1890,Pxi.

[73] . Sir Alexander Cunningham 'Ancient Geography of India,' Indological Book House, 1963, p. 186.

[74] . Rhys Davids,questions of King Milinda,pxi.

[75] .Ibid

[76] .Rhys Davids,questions of King Milinda

[77] .Ibid

[78] . A.K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks.

[79] .The debate of King Milinda,bhikkhu Pesala,Introduction

[80] . Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. P.446

[81]. V.A. Smith, The Early History of India.

[82] .Dīghanikāya

[83] .Dīghanikāya, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta

[84] .Question of Milindapañha, Chapter 7.

[85] .The Debate of King Milinda, An Abridgement of the Milindapañha,Bhikkhu Pesala,Penang,Malaysia,2001

[86] .W.Pachow, An Assessment of the Highlights in the Milindapanha, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 13.2 (May 2000), pp. 1-27

[87] . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_Kassapa

[88] Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain (1972). Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur. Available on-line at http://jainfriends.tripod.com/books/jiblcontents.htm. Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5) p 215. The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/

[89] . Bhaskar (1972). See Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 733, entry for "Hetu" for a translation of ahetu-vādin as: "denier of a cause."

[90] . Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life (DN 2). Available on-line at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.htm

[91] .Ibid

[92] .Ibid

[93] . Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life (DN 2). Available on-line at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.htm

[94] . W.Pachow, An Assessment of the Highlights in the Milindapanha, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 13.2 (May 2000), pp. 1-27

[95] . W.Pachow, An Assessment of the Highlights in the Milindapanha, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 13.2 (May 2000), pp. 1-27

[96] .Milindapañha

[97] . These six masters lived, however the time of the Buddha, which the author was probably aware of our work. But this anachronism it was revealed in an imaginative story than allowed. On the teachings of these six masters see Digha Nikaya No. 2.

[98] .Milindapañha

[99] . (Monk, pabbajito lit," a drawn out, "namely, from the mundane home life to monasticism.)

[100] . (Uttamam mantam, the Pāli word manta corresponds to the Sanskrit mantra. In the Vedic and early Indian use and also in the Pali texts, this term refers to the Vedic hymns and sayings, and was therefore also on page 34 with "sacred songs" played. Nāgasana But the young, who was disappointed by his Vedic studies, the words of Venerable Rohana was related to a higher knowledge. Des translator free recall of the word manta has therefore seems reasonable according to the right.)

[101] .1. The "enumeration of the phenomena of existence" (Dhammasańgaṇi) with the division in healing, and unwholesome karma-neutral things (in a presentation) adorned with twos and threes;
2. the "book of essays" (Vibhańga), which also consists of eighteen essays (on the existence of groups, etc.); 3.The "Book of the discussion of the elements" (dhātu-Kathā), with its fourteen chapters, of connectedness and Nichtverbundensein;4.The "Book of Characters" (puggala-Paññatti) with its six-fold division in the representation of the aggregates, the representation of the sense bases, etc.; 5.The "Book of the discussion objects" (Kathā-Vatthu), that is, on the whole, from a thousand treatises, namely, five hundred treatises on our own teaching and from five hundred treatises on the teaching of the opponents; 6.The "Book of the pairs' (Yamaka) with its six-fold division into pairs questions about roots, life groups, etc.; 7.The "Book of the origin" (Paṭṭhāna) and its subdivision into the twenty-four contingency types, such as root condition, object condition, etc. (These are the seven books of the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka.)

[102] .(To take a monk (bhikkhu), ie, as a full member of the Buddhist order (sangha) the completed 20 years is required. The admission as a novice (Samanera) can, however, already done in 7 years.)

[103] T.W. Rhys Davids, The Questions of King Milinda, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 35-6. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1890-4, p. xi.

[104] .Ibid,pxii.

[105] . W.W. Tarn, Greeks in Bactria and India. New York: Macmillan Company, 1938, p. 419.

[106] . Kogen Mizuno, “On the Recensions of Milindapanha,” in Summary of the Research Studies of the University of Komazawa, Vol. 17. (1959), p. 54-5.

[107] Hinüber, Oskar von (1996/2000). A Handbook of Pāli Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyte, pp. 85-6, para. 179

[108] Hinüber (2000), pp. 83-86, para. 173-179

[109] . According to Hinüber (2000), p. 83, para. 173, the first Chinese translation is believed to date from the third century and is currently lost; a second Chinese translation, known as "Nāgasena-bhiksu-sutra," (那先比丘經) dates from the fourth century. The extant second translation is "much shorter" that the current Pāli-language Mil.

[110] . T.W. Rhys Davids, the Questions of King Milinda, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 35-6. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1890-4, p. xi

[111] .Dutt, Buddhist sects in India, P.135.

[112] . Nagasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation,Vol.1,Venerable Guang Xing, SHYH HYAH INTERNATIONAL CO., LTD.Taiwan 2008,p329. , p. xi; Paul Pelliot, Les noms propres dans les traductions chinoises des an sles trad uctionschi noi sesde s milindapañha, Paris, 1915,p 380,Paul Damieville, “Les Virsions Chinoises du Milindapañha”,in Bulletin de l Ecole francaise de Extream Orient, Vol.24, 1924, pp1-258,Winternits, Ahistory of Indian Literature, p 142.

[113] .Cullavaggapāli, Khuddakavatthukkhandaka

[114] .Samantapāsādika Vinayaṭṭhakathā

[115] . JI Xianlin 季羨林 and WANG Shuying 王树英, Ji Xianlin lun Fo jiao 季羨林论佛教 [Selected Works of Ji Xianlin on Buddhism], Beijing Shi 北京市: Hua yi chu ban she 華藝出版社, 2006, p. 398.

[116] . Gustav Roth, "Bhiksuvinaya and BhiksuPrakīrṭaka and Notes on the Language" Journal of the Bihar Research SocietyVol. 52, Nos. 1-4 (Jan. – Dec. 1966), p. 39.

[117] . 　Khoroche, Peter. “Aśvaghosa,” in Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol. 1., Robert E. Buswell, ed., New York: Macmillan, 2004, p. 35.

[118] . JI, Selected Works, pp. 398.

[119].Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation, Vol.1, Venerable Guang Xing, Shyh Hyah international Co., LTD.Taiwan 2008, p333.

[120]. K.R.Norman, A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai lectures 1994,p90.

[121] .Ibid

[122] .Ibid

[123] . Nāgasena Bhiksu Sūtra translation, Vol.1, Venerable Guang Xing, Shyh Hyah international Co., LTD.Taiwan 2008, p333.

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[1] .K.R.Norman, A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai lectures 1994,p90.

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